Hostname: page-component-8448b6f56d-m8qmq Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-04-24T11:05:39.528Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Faunal turnover in the Azraq Basin, eastern Jordan 28,000 to 9000 cal yr BP, signalling climate change and human impact

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  20 January 2017

Louise Martin ,
Yvonne H. Edwards ,
Joe Roe  and
Andrew Garrard
Louise Martin*
Affiliation:
Institute of Archaeology, University College London, Gordon Square, London WC1H 0PY, UK
Yvonne H. Edwards
Affiliation:
Institute of Archaeology, University College London, Gordon Square, London WC1H 0PY, UK
Joe Roe
Affiliation:
Institute of Archaeology, University College London, Gordon Square, London WC1H 0PY, UK
Andrew Garrard
Affiliation:
Institute of Archaeology, University College London, Gordon Square, London WC1H 0PY, UK
*
*Corresponding author. E-mail address:louise.martin@ucl.ac.uk(L. Martin)
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Recent zooarchaeological analyses of game exploitation in the Epipalaeolithic of the Southern Levant identify a decline in large game in the Natufian, with corresponding increase in small prey, interpreted as hunting pressure driven by population expansion. To date, studies focus on the Mediterranean zone. This paper adopts similar approaches to examine Epipalaeolithic to Neolithic faunal data from 16 sites in the steppic Jordanian Azraq Basin. Results here reveal very different trends. Large game, mainly equids, fluctuate throughout the Epipalaeolithic, due to climatic conditions and available water/vegetation. Cattle thrive in the Azraq oasis, showing no decline in the Late Epipalaeolithic. Gazelle exploitation is predominant and sustainable throughout the Epipalaeolithic, even at Kharaneh IV and Wadi Jilat 6 ‘megasites’. However, PPNB assemblages from the limestone steppe show intensive game exploitation resulting from longer-stay settlement. The focused gazelle-hunting camp at Dhuweila in the basalt desert also shows pressure from indiscriminate culling impacting herd demography, interpreted as providing meat for onwards exchange. Human impacts on steppe fauna appear both local and in many cases short-term, unlike the large-game suppression reported from west of the Rift Valley. Resource pressures and game over-kill, whether population-driven or otherwise, are not currently apparent east of the Jordan River.

Keywords

Southern LevantEpipalaeolithicPPNBPrey exploitationHunting pressurePalaeoenvironmentClimate change
Type
Research Article
Information
Quaternary Research , Volume 86 , Issue 2 , September 2016 , pp. 200 - 219
Copyright
Copyright © American Quaternary Association 2016

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Baharav, D., 1983. Reproductive strategies in female mountain and Dorcas gazelles (Gazella gazella gazella and Gazella dorcas). Journal of Zoology 200, 445–453.Google Scholar
Baird, D., Garrard, A., Martin, L., Wright, K., 1992. Prehistoric environment and settlement in the Azraq Basin: an interim report on the 1989 excavation season. Levant 24, 1–31.Google Scholar
Bar-Matthews, M., Ayalon, A., Kaufman, A., 1997. Late Quaternary paleoclimate in the eastern Mediterranean region from stable isotope analysis of speleothems at Soreq Cave, Israel. Quaternary Research 47, 155–168.Google Scholar
Bar-Matthews, M., Ayalon, A., Kaufman, A., Wasserburg, G., 1999. The Eastern Mediterranean paleoclimate as a reflection of regional events: Soreq cave, Israel. Earth and Planetary Science Letters 166, 85–95.Google Scholar
Bar-Oz, G.N., Dayan, T., Kaufman, D., 1999. The Epipalaeolithic faunal sequence in Israel: a view from Neve David. Journal of Archaeological Science 26, 67–82.Google Scholar
Bar-Yosef, O., 2000. The context of animal domestication in South-Western Asia. In: Machkour, M., Choyke, A.M., Buitenhuis, H., Poplin, F. (Eds.), Archaeology of the Near East IV. Proceeding of the 4th International Symposium on the Archaeology of South-Western Asia and Adjacent Areas. Publication 32, Groningen, pp. 185–195.Google Scholar
Bar-Yosef, O., Belfer-Cohen, A., 1989. The origins of sedentism and farming communities in the Levant. Journal of World Prehistory 3, 447–498.Google Scholar
Bartov, Y., Stein, M., Enzel, Y., Agnon, A., Reches, Z., 2002. Lake levels and sequence stratigraphy of Lake lisan, the late Pleistocene precursor of the dead sea. Quaternary Research 57, 9–21.Google Scholar
Belfer-Cohen, A., 1991. The natufian in the levant. Annual Review of Anthropology 20, 167–186.Google Scholar
Betts, A.V.G., 1985. Black desert survey, Jordan. Third preliminary report. Levant 17, 29–52.Google Scholar
Betts, A.V.G., 1986. The Prehistory of the Basalt Desert Transjordan: an Analysis. Unpublished PhD thesis. Institute of Archaeology, University of London.Google Scholar
Betts, A.V.G., 1988. Excavations at Dhuweila, eastern Jordan. A preliminary report. Annual of the Department of Antiquities of Jordan 33, 212–228.Google Scholar
Betts, A.V.G., 1991. The late Epipalaeolithic in the black desert, eastern Jordan. In: Bar-Yosef, O., Valla, F. (Eds.), The Natufian Culture in the Levant. International Monographs in Prehistory, Ann Arbor, pp. 217–234.Google Scholar
Betts, A.V.G., 1998. The Harra and the Hamad: Excavations and Explorations in Eastern Jordan, 1. Sheffield Academic Press, Sheffield. Sheffield Archaeological Monographs 9.Google Scholar
Betts, A.V.G., Cropper, D., Martin, L., McCartney, C., 2013. The Later Prehistory of the Badia. Excavations and Surveys in Eastern Jordan. Oxbow, Oxford. Levant Supplementary Series 11.Google Scholar
Byrd, B.F., 1988. Late Pleistocene settlement diversity in the Azraq basin. Paleorient 14, 257–264.Google Scholar
Byrd, B.F., 1992. The dispersal of food production across the Levant. In: Price, T.D. (Ed.), Transitions to Agriculture in Prehistory. Prehistory Press, Madison, pp. 49–61.Google Scholar
Byrd, B.F., 2005. Reassessing the emergence of village life in the Near East. Journal of Archaeological Research 13, 231–290.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Byrd, B.F., Garrard, A., 1990. The last glacial maximum in the Jordanian desert. In: Gamble, C., Soffer, O. (Eds.), The World at 18,000 BP, Low Latitudes, 2. Unwin and Hyman, London, pp. 78–96.Google Scholar
Byrd, B.F., Garrard, A.N., Brandy, P., 2016. Modelling foraging ranges and spatial organisation of Late Pleistocene hunter-gatherers in the southern Levant — a least-cost GIS approach. Quaternary International 396, 62–78.Google Scholar
Cleveland, W.S., Devlin, S.J., 1988. Locally weighted regression: an approach to regression analysis by local fitting. Journal of the American Statistical Association 83, 596–610.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Colledge, S., 2001. Plant Exploitation on Epipalaeolithic and Early Neolithic Sites in the Levant. BAR International Series 986, British Archaeological Reports, Oxford.Google Scholar
Copeland, L., Hours, F., 1989. The Hammer on the Rock. Studies in the Early Palaeolithic of Azraq, Jordan. BAR International Series 540, British Archaeological Reports, Oxford.Google Scholar
Davis, S., 1983. The age profiles of Gazelle predated by ancient man in Israel: possible evidence for a shift from seasonality to sedentism in the Natufian. Paleorient 9, 55–63.Google Scholar
Davis, S., 1985. A preliminary report on the fauna from Hatoula: a Natufian Khiamian (PPNA) site near Latroun, Israel. In: Lechevallier, M., Ronen, A. (Eds.), Le Site Natoufien-Khiamien de Hatoula. Centre de Recherche Français de Jerusalem, pp. 71–98.Google Scholar
Dixon, P., 2003. VEGAN, a package of R functions for community ecology. J. Veg. Sci. 14, 927–930.Google Scholar
Dunham, K.M., 1997. Population growth of mountain gazelles reintroduced in central Arabia. Biological Conservation 81, 205–214.Google Scholar
Edwards, P.C., 1989. Problems of recognizing earliest sedentism: the Natufian example. Journal of Mediterranean Archaeology 2, 5–48.Google Scholar
Edwards, P.C., Bocquentin, F., Colledge, S., Edwards, Y.H., Le Dosseur, G., Martin, L., Zvonkica, S., Webb, J., 2013. Wadi Hammeh 27: an open-air ‘base-camp’ on the fringe of the Natufian ‘homeland’. In: Bar-Yosef, O., Valla, F. (Eds.), Natufian Foragers in the Levant. Terminal Pleistocene Social Changes in Western Asia. International Monographs in Prehistory, Ann Arbor, pp. 319–348.Google Scholar
Edwards, Y.H., Martin, L., 2013. Animal bones and archaeozoological analysis. In: Edwards, P.C. (Ed.), Wadi Hammeh 27, an Early Natufian Settlement at Pella in Jordan. Brill, Leiden, pp. 321–350.Google Scholar
Enzel, Y., Amit, R., Dayan, U., Crouvi, O., Kahana, R., Ziv, B., Sharon, D., 2008. The climatic and physiographic controls of the eastern Mediterranean over the late Pleistocene climates in the southern Levant and its neighbouring deserts. Global and Planetary Change 60, 165–192.Google Scholar
Finlayson, W., Mithen, S. (Eds.), 2007. The Early Prehistory of Wadi Faynan, Southern Jordan: Archaeological Survey of Wadis Faynan, Ghuwayr and Al Bustan and Evaluation of the Pre-pottery Neolithic a Site of WF16. Levant Supplementary Series 4, Oxbow, Oxford.Google Scholar
France, R.L., 2010. Restorative Development of Devastated Ecocultural Landscapes. CRC Press, Boca Raton.Google Scholar
Garrard, A.N., 1980. Man-animal-plant Relationships During the Upper Pleistocene and Early Holocene of the Levant. Unpublished PhD thesis. University of Cambridge.Google Scholar
Garrard, A.N., 1991. Natufian settlement in the Azraq basin, eastern Jordan. In: Bar-Yosef, O., Valla, F. (Eds.), The Natufian Culture in the Levant. International Monographs in Prehistory. Ann Arbor, pp. 235–244.Google Scholar
Garrard, A.N., 1998. Environment and cultural adaptations in the Azraq basin: 24,000-7,000 BP. In: Henry, D.O. (Ed.), The Prehistoric Archaeology of Jordan. BAR International Series 705. British Archaeological Report, Oxford, pp. 139–148.Google Scholar
Garrard, A., Baird, D., Byrd, B., 1994a. The chronological basis and significance of the late Palaeolithic and neolithic sequence in the Azraq basin, Jordan. In: Bar-Yosef, O., Kra, R. (Eds.), Late Quaternary Chronology and Paleoclimates of the Eastern Mediterranean. Radiocarbon. University Arizona, Tuscon, pp. 177–199.Google Scholar
Garrard, A., Baird, D., Colledge, S., Martin, L., Wright, K., 1994b. Prehistoric environment and settlement in the Azraq basin: an interim report on the 1987 and 1988 excavations seasons. Levant 26, 73–109.Google Scholar
Garrard, A., Betts, A., Byrd, B., Hunt, C., 1988a. Summary of palaeoenvironmental and prehistoric investigations in the Azraq Basin. In: Garrard, A.N., Gebel, H.G. (Eds.), The Prehistory of Jordan. BAR International Series 396, British Archaeological Reports, Oxford, pp. 311–337.Google Scholar
Garrard, A.N., Byrd, B.F., 1992. New dimensions to the Epipalaeolithic of the wadi el-Jilat in central Jordan. Paleorient 18 (1), 47–62.Google Scholar
Garrard, A.N., Byrd, B.F., 2013. Beyond the Fertile Crescent. Late Palaeolithic and Neolithic Communities of the Jordanian Steppe. The Azraq Basin Project, Volume I. Project Background and the Late Palaeolithic (Geological Context and Technology). Levant Supplementary Series 13. Oxbow, Oxford.Google Scholar
Garrard, A., Colledge, S., Hunt, C., Montague, R., 1988b. Environment and subsistence during the late Pleistocene and early Holocene in the Azraq basin. Paleorient 14 (2), 40–49.Google Scholar
Garrard, A., Colledge, S., Martin, L., 1996. The emergence of crop cultivation and caprine herding in the “Marginal Zone” of the Southern Levant. In: Harris, D.R. (Ed.), The Origins and Spread of Agriculture and Pastoralism in Eurasia. University College London, London, pp. 204–226.Google Scholar
Geigl, E.-M., Grange, T., 2012. Eurasian wild asses in time and space: morphological versus genetic diversity. Annals of Anatomy 194, 88–102.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gordon, C.G., Buikstra, J.E., 1981. Soil ph, bone preservation and sampling bias at mortuary sites. American Antiquity 46, 566–571.Google Scholar
Goring-Morris, A.N., Belfer-Cohen, A., 1998. The articulation of cultural processes and late Quaternary environmental changes in C is Jordan. Paleorient 23, 71–93.Google Scholar
Grayson, D.K., 1984. Quantitative Zooarchaeology. Academic Press, New York.Google Scholar
Guillot, G., Rousset, F., 2013. Dismantling the Mantel tests. Methods Ecol. Evol. 4, 336–344.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Habibi, K., 1991. Reproductive strategy of the Farasan gazelle (Gazella gazella farasani). Journal of Arid Environments 23, 351–353.Google Scholar
Harper, F., 1945. Extinct and Vanishing Mammals of the Old World. Special Public. 12. American Committee for International Wild Life Protection, New York, NY.Google Scholar
Hazan, N., Stein, M., Agnon, A., Marco, S., Nadel, D., Negendanke, J., Schwab, M., Neev, D., 2005. The late Quaternary limnological history of Lake Kinneret (sea of galilee), Israel. Quaternary Research 63, 60–77.Google Scholar
Henry, D.O., 1989. From Foraging to Agriculture. The Levant at the End of the Ice Age. University of Pennsylvania Press, Philadelphia.Google Scholar
Helms, S.W., Betts, A.V.G., 1987. The desert kites of the Badiyat esh-Sham and North Arabia. Paléorient 13, 41–67.Google Scholar
Horn, H.S., 1966. Measurement of “overlap” in comparative ecological studies. American Naturalist 419–424.Google Scholar
Hunt, C., Elrishi, H., Gilbertson, D., Grattan, J., McLaren, S., Pyatt, F., Rushworth, G., Barker, G., 2004. Early Holocene environments in the wadi Faynan, Jordan. The Holocene 14, 921–930.Google Scholar
Hunt, C.O., Garrard, A.N., 2013. Section B: the late Palaeolithic — geological context. In: Garrard, A.N., Byrd, B.F. (Eds.), Beyond the Fertile Crescent: Late Palaeolithic and Neolithic Communities of the Jordanian Steppe. The Azraq Basin Project, Volume 1: Project Background and the Late Palaeolithic (Geological Context and Technology). Levant Supplementary Series 13. Oxbow, Oxford, pp. 53–135.Google Scholar
Jones, M., Richter, T., 2011. Paleoclimatic and archaeological implications of Pleistocene and Holocene environments in Azraq, Jordan. Quaternary Research 76, 363–372.Google Scholar
Kaufman, D., 1987. Excavations at the geometric Kebaran site of Neve David, Israel: a preliminary report. Quartar 26, 53–72.Google Scholar
Kingswood, S., Blank, D., 1996. Gazella subgutturosa. Mammalian Species 518, 1–10 (accessed 01.04.09).Google Scholar
Klingel, H., 1977. Observations on social organization and behaviour of african and asiatic wild asses (Equus africanus and E. hemionus). Zeitschrift für Tierpsychologie 44, 323–331.Google Scholar
Legendre, P., Fortin, M.-J., 2010. Comparison of the Mantel test and alternative approaches for detecting complex multivariate relationships in the spatial analysis of genetic data. Molecular Ecology Resources 10, 831–844.Google Scholar
Legge, A.J., Rowley-Conwy, P.A., 1987. Gazelle killing in stone age Syria. Scientific American 255, 88–95.Google Scholar
Legge, A.J., Rowley-Conwy, P.A., 2000. The exploitation of animals. In: Moore, A., Hillman, G., Legge, A. (Eds.), Village on the Euphrates: from Foraging to Farming at Abu Hureyra. Oxford University Press, pp. 423–474.Google Scholar
Maher, L.A., Richter, T., Macdonald, D., Jones, M.D., Martin, L., Stock, J.T., 2012. Twenty thousand-year-old huts at a hunter-gatherer settlement in eastern Jordan. PLoS One 7 (2), e31447. http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0031447.Google Scholar
Mantel, N., 1967. The detection of disease clustering and a generalized regression approach. Cancer Research 27, 209–220.Google Scholar
Martin, L., 1994. Hunting and Herding in a Semiarid Region. Faunal Remains from the Epipalaeolithic and Neolithic of the Eastern Jordanian Steppe. Unpublished PhD dissertation. University of Sheffield.Google Scholar
Martin, L., 1998. The animal bones. In: Betts, A.V. (Ed.), The Harra and the Hamad: Excavations and Surveys in Eastern Jordan, Volume 1. Sheffield Archaeological Monographs 9. Sheffield Academic Press, Sheffield, pp. 159–184.Google Scholar
Martin, L., 1999. Mammal remains from the eastern Jordanian Neolithic, and the nature of caprine herding in the steppe. Paleorient 25 (2), 87–104.Google Scholar
Martin, L., 2000. Gazelle (Gazella sp) behavioural ecology: predicting animal behaviour for prehistoric environments in south-west Asia. Journal of Zoology (London) 250, 13–30.Google Scholar
Martin, L., Edwards, Y.H., Garrard, A., 2010. Hunting practises at an eastern Jordan Epipaleolithic aggregation site: the case of Kharaneh IV. Levant 42, 107–135.Google Scholar
Martin, L., Edwards, Y.H., Garrard, A., 2013. Broad spectrum or specialized activity? Birds and tortoises at the Epipalaeolithic site of Wadi Jilat 22 in the eastern Jordan steppe. Antiquity 87, 649–665.Google Scholar
Mays, S., 2010. The Archaeology of Human Bone. Routledge, Taylor and Francis, London and New York.Google Scholar
Morisita, M., 1959. Measuring of interspecific association and similarity between communities. Memoirs of the Faculty of Science, Kyushu University, Series E. 65–80. Series E3.Google Scholar
Muheisen, M., 1988. The Epipalaeolithic phases of Kharaneh IV. In: Garrard, A.N., Gebel, H.-G. (Eds.), The Prehistory of Jordan. BAR International Series 396, British Archaeological Reports, Oxford, pp. 353–367.Google Scholar
Muheisen, M., Wada, H., 1995. An analysis of the microliths at Kharaneh IV phase d, square A20/37. Paleorient 21 (1), 75–95.Google Scholar
Munro, N.D., 2003. Small game, the Younger Dryas and the transition to agriculture in the southern Levant. Mitteilungen der Geseilschaft Für Urgeschichte 12, 47–71.Google Scholar
Munro, N.D., 2004. Hunting pressure and occupation intensity in the Natufian. Current Anthropology 45, S5–S33.Google Scholar
Munro, N.D., 2009. Epipalaeolithic subsistence intensification in the southern Levant: the faunal evidence. In: Hublin, J.-J., Richards, M.J. (Eds.), Integrating Approaches to the Studies of Palaeolithic Subsistence. Springer, Netherlands, pp. 141–155.Google Scholar
Munro, N.D., Bar-Oz, G., Stutz, A., 2009. Aging mountain gazelle (Gazella gazella): refining methods of tooth eruption and wear and bone fusion. Journal of Archaeological Science 36, 752–763.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Munro, N.D., Kennerty, M., Meier, J.S., Samei, S., al-Nahar, M., Olszewski, D.I., 2015. Human hunting and site occupation intensity in the Early Epipaleolithic of the Jordanian western highlands. Quaternary International 1–9.Google Scholar
Nelson, B., 1973. Azraq Desert Oasis. Allen Lane, London.Google Scholar
Oksanen, J., Blanchet, F.G., Kindt, R., Legendre, P., Minchin, P.R., O’Hara, R.B., Simpson, G.L., Solymos, P., Stevens, M.H.H., Wagner, H., 2016. Vegan: Community Ecology Package. https://CRAN.R-project.org/package=vegan.Google Scholar
Orlando, L., Mashkour, M., Burke, A., Douady, C.J., Eisenmann, V., Hanni, C., 2006. Geographic distribution of an extinct equid (Equus hydruntinus: Mammalia, Equidae) revealed by morphological and genetical analyses of fossils. Molecular Ecology 15, 2083–2093.Google Scholar
Orlando, L., Metcalf, J., Alberdi, M., Telles-Antunes, M., Bonjean, D., et al., 2009. Revising the recent evolutionary history of equids using ancient DNA. PNAS 106, 21754–21759.Google Scholar
Ostrowski, S., Mesochina, P., Williams, J.B., 2006. Physiological adjustments of sand gazelles (Gazella subgutturosa) to a boom-or-bust economy: standard fasting metabolic rate, total evaporative water loss, and changes in the sizes of organs during food and water restriction. Physiological and Biochemical Zoology 79, 810–819.Google Scholar
R Core Team, 2016. R: a Language and Environment for Statistical Computing. R Foundation for Statistical Computing, Vienna, Austria.Google Scholar
Reading, R., Richard, P., Mix, H.M., Lhagvasuren, B., Feh, C., Kane, D.P., Dulmasteren, S., Enkhbold, S., 2001. Status and distribution of khulan (Equus hemionus). Mongolia Journal of Zoology 254, 381–389.Google Scholar
Richter, T., Allcock, S., Jones, M., Maher, L., Martin, L., Stock, J., Thorne, B., 2009. New light on final Pleistocene settlement diversity in the Azraq basin (Jordan): recent excavations at Ayn Qasiyya. Paleorient 35, 49–68.Google Scholar
Richter, T., Arranz, A., House, M., Rafaiah, A.M., Yeomans, L., 2014. Preliminary report on the second season of excavations at Shubayqa 1. Neo-Lithics 1 (14), 3–10.Google Scholar
Richter, T., Garrard, A., Allcock, S., Maher, L., 2011. Interaction before agriculture: exchanging material and sharing knowledge in the Final Pleistocene Levant. Cambridge Archaeological Journal 21, 95–114.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Richter, T., Maher, L., Garrard, A., Edinborough, K., Jones, M.D., Stock, J.T., 2013. Epipalaeolithic settlement dynamics in southwest Asia: new radiocarbon evidence from the Azraq Basin. Journal of Quaternary Science 28, 467–479.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Robinson, S.A., Black, S., Sellwood, B.W., Valdes, P.J., 2006. A review of palaeoclimates and palaeoenvironments in the Levant and Eastern Mediterranean from 25,000 to 5000 years BP: setting the environmental background for the evolution of human civilisation. Quaternary Science Reviews 25, 1517–1541 Google Scholar
Rollefson, G.O., Quintero, L., Wilke, P., 2001. Azraq Wetand Survey 2000, 45, pp. 71–82. Preliminary Report. Annual of the Department of Antiquities of Jordan.Google Scholar
Roses Moehlman, P., 2002. Equids: Zebras, Asses and Horses Status Survey and Conservation Action Plan. IUCN/SSC Equid Specialist Group. IUCN World Conservation Union 2002.Google Scholar
Rubenstein, D.I., Sundaresan, S., Fischhoff, I., Saltz, D., 2007. Social networks in wild asses: comparing patterns and processes among populations. Erforschung der Biologischen Ressourcen Mongolei 10, 159–176.Google Scholar
Saxon, E.C., Martin, G., Bar-Yosef, O., 1978. An open-air site on the Israeli littoral. Paleorient 4, 253–266.Google Scholar
Silver, I.A., 1969. The ageing of domestic animals. In: Brothwell, D.R., Higgs, E.S. (Eds.), Science in Archaeology: a Survey of Progress and Research. Thames and Hudson, London, pp. 283–302.Google Scholar
Simmons, A.H., Ilany, G., 1975–1977. What mean these bones? Paleorient 3, 269–274.Google Scholar
Sokal, R.R., 1979. Testing statistical significance of geographic variation patterns. Syst. Zool 28, 227–232.Google Scholar
Stiner, M.C., 2001. Thirty years on: the “broad spectrum revolution” and Palaeolithic demography. In: Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA, 98, pp. 6993–6996.Google Scholar
Stiner, M., Munro, N., 2002. Approaches to prehistoric diet breadth, demography and prey ranking systems in time and space. Journal of Archaeological Method and Theory 9, 181–214.Google Scholar
Stiner, M., Munro, N., Surovell, T., 2000. The tortoise and the hare; Small-game use, the Broad-Spectrum Revolution and Palaeolithic demography. Current Anthropology 41, 39–73.Google Scholar
Stiner, M.C., Munro, N.D., Surovell, T.A., Tchernov, E., Bar-Yosef, O., 1999. Palaeolithic population growth pulses evidenced by small animal exploitation. Science 283, 190–194.Google Scholar
Stutz, A.J., Munro, N., Bar-Oz, G., 2009. Increasing the resolution of the broad spectrum revolution in the southern Levantine Epipaleolithic (19-12 ka). Journal of Human Evolution 56, 294–306.Google Scholar
Tatin, L., Bijan, F., Darreh-Shoori, T., Tourenq, C., Tatin, D., Azmayesh, B., 2003. The last populations of the critically endangered onager Equus hemionus onager in Iran: urgent requirements for protection and study. Oryx 37, 4.Google Scholar
Tchernov, E., 1991. Biological evidence for human sedentism in south-west Asia during the Natufian. In: Bar-Yosef, O., Valla, F. (Eds.), The Natufian Culture in the Levant. International Monographs in Prehistory, Ann Arbor, pp. 315–340.Google Scholar
Tchernov, E., 1994. The fauna of Netiv Hagdud: a summary. In: Bar-Yosef, O., Gopher, A. (Eds.), An Early Neolithic Village in the Jordan Valley. Part 1: The Archaeology of Netiv Hagdud. American School of Prehistory Bulletin 43. Pea-body Museum of Archaeology and Ethnography, Harvard, pp. 237–245.Google Scholar
Uerpmann, H.-P., 1987. The Ancient Distribution of Ungulate Mammals in the Middle East. Ludwig Reichert Verlag, Wiesbaden.Google Scholar
Van Vuure, T., 2005. Retracing the Aurochs: History, Morphology and Ecology of an Extinct Wild Ox. Pensoft, Sofia.Google Scholar
Wolda, H., 1981. Similarity indices, sample size and diversity. Oecologia 50, 296–302.Google Scholar
Yizhaq, M., Mintz, G., Cohen, I., Khalaily, H., Weine, S., Boarett, E., 2005. Quality controlled radiocarbon dating of bones and charcoal from the early Pre-Pottery Neolithic B (PPNB) of Motza (Israel). Radiocarbon 47, 193–206 Google Scholar
Zeder, M.A., 2012. The Broad spectrum revolution at 40: resource diversity, intensification, and an alternative to optimal foraging explanations. Journal of Anthropological Archaeology 31, 241–264.Google Scholar