Hostname: page-component-8448b6f56d-xtgtn Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-04-23T20:12:15.364Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Farmers' experiments in Cuba

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  05 December 2012

Friedrich Leitgeb ,
Susanne Kummer ,
Fernando R. Funes-Monzote  and
Christian R. Vogl
Friedrich Leitgeb*
Affiliation:
Working Group: Knowledge Systems and Innovations, Division of Organic Farming, Department of Sustainable Agriculture Systems, University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences (BOKU), Vienna, Austria.
Susanne Kummer
Affiliation:
Working Group: Knowledge Systems and Innovations, Division of Organic Farming, Department of Sustainable Agriculture Systems, University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences (BOKU), Vienna, Austria.
Fernando R. Funes-Monzote
Affiliation:
Estación Experimental Indio Hatuey, Universidad de Matanzas, Central España Republicana, Perico, Matanzas, Cuba.
Christian R. Vogl
Affiliation:
Working Group: Knowledge Systems and Innovations, Division of Organic Farming, Department of Sustainable Agriculture Systems, University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences (BOKU), Vienna, Austria.
*
*Corresponding author: friedrich.leitgeb@boku.ac.at
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Due to the collapse of the socialist systems in 1989, Cuba's government promoted a series of structural changes to deal with resource scarcity and to enhance agricultural productivity. The upcoming crisis triggered adaptation strategies and led to a large-scale transition process towards a more sustainable model of agriculture. Farmers' experiments have been an implicit part of this process. Nowadays, farmers' capacity to experiment is widely accepted among the scientific community. However, detailed descriptions of farmers' approaches to experimentation are scarce. In this study, we examine the topics, resources, sources, motives, methods and outcomes of farmers' experiments in Cuba. The research methods comprised semi-structured interviews with 72 Cuban farmers, field notes, participant observation and a research diary. Key informants and 34 expert interviews added important insights into analysis. The results reveal that farmers' experiments are an integral part of farming in Cuba. Most farmers reported realizing their own experiments on their farms. The use of locally available resources was a crucial element for farmers' experiments. The topics were related to the introduction of new plant species or varieties, plant production, mechanization, fertilization, plant protection and the introduction of new animal species. The farmers' own idea was the most important source for experimenting, followed by ideas offered by colleagues and family members. Increasing production, independence from external resources and improving farm management were the main motives for experimenting. More than half of the farmers started to experiment without detailed written or mental planning, but made some considerations about the experiment before starting. Some planned more in detail and a few farmers devised a written plan, draft or model. Starting on a small scale was a way to minimize risks. The experiments were mainly evaluated by observation and comparison. Only a few farmers took records of their experiments. The most important outcomes were higher production, food self-sufficiency, work easement, improved plant health, increased knowledge, higher working efficiency and better taste of products. Farmers' experiments are a means of learning and they enhance farmers' capacity to adapt to changing conditions.

Keywords

local knowledgefarmers' innovationsadaptive capacityexperimental processsustainable agriculturechangelearning
Type
Research Papers
Information
Renewable Agriculture and Food Systems , Volume 29 , Issue 1 , March 2014 , pp. 48 - 64
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 2012 

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

1 Nova, A. 2002. Cuban agriculture before 1990. In Funes, F., García, L., Bourque, M., Pérez, N., and Rosset, P. (eds). Sustainable Agriculture and Resistance – Transforming Food Production in Cuba. Food First, Oakland, CA, USA. p. 27–39.Google Scholar
2 Funes-Monzote, F. 2008. Farming like we're here to stay – The mixed farming alternative for Cuba. PhD thesis, Wageningen University.Google Scholar
3 Wright, J. 2006. Cuba's enforced ecological learning experience. LEISA Magazine 22:6–9.Google Scholar
4 Funes, F. 2002. The organic farming movement in Cuba. In Funes, F., García, L., Bourque, M., Pérez, N., and Rosset, P. (eds). Sustainable Agriculture and Resistance – Transforming Food Production in Cuba. Food First, Oakland, CA, USA. p. 1–26.Google Scholar
5 Wright, J. 2009. Sustainable Agriculture and Food Security in an Era of Oil Scarcity – Lessons from Cuba. Earthscan, London, UK.Google Scholar
6 Wright, J. 2005. Falta Petroleo! Policy and Perceptions on the Ecological Transformation in Cuba's Farming and Food Systems. PhD thesis, Wageningen University.Google Scholar
7 Alvarez, M., Bourque, M., Funes, F., Martin, L., Nova, A., and Rosset, P. 2006. Surviving crisis in Cuba: The second agrarian reform and sustainable agriculture. In Rosset, P., Patel, R., and Courville, M. (eds). Promised Land: Competing Visions of Agrarian Reform. Food First Books, Oakland, CA, USA, p. 225–248.Google Scholar
8 Enríquez, L.J. 2003. Economic reform and repeasantization in post-1990 Cuba. Latin American Research Review 38(1):202–218.Google Scholar
9 Cuba Debate 2009. Cuba Demostró Capacidad de Resistencia, Solidaridad y Organización. 26 de Julio 2009. Available at Web site http://www.cubadebate.cu/raul-castro-ruz/2009/07/26/cubademostro-su-capacidad-de-resistencia-solidaridad-y-organizacion/ (verified June 14, 2012).Google Scholar
10 Altieri, M.A. and Funes-Monzote, F.R. 2012. The paradox of Cuban agriculture. Monthly Review 63(8) (online).Google Scholar
11 PCC Partido Comunista de Cuba 2011. Linamentos de la política económica y social del partido y de la revolución. Available at Web site http://www.prensa-latina.cu/Dossiers/LineamientosVICongresoPCC.pdf (verified June 14, 2012).Google Scholar
12 Nelson, E., Scott, S., Cukier, J., and Galán, Á. 2009. Institutionalizing agroecology: successes and challenges in Cuba. Agriculture and Human Values 26(3):233–243.Google Scholar
13 Rosset, P.M., Machín Sosa, B., Roque Jaime, A.M., and Ávila Lozano, D.R. 2011. The Campesino-to-Campesino agroecology movement of ANAP in Cuba: Social process methodology in the construction of sustainable peasant agriculture and food sovereignty. Journal of Peasant Studies 38(1):161–191.Google Scholar
14 Altieri, M. 2002. Agroecological principles for sustainable agriculture. In Uphoff, N. (ed). Agroecological Innovations – Increasing Food Production with Participatory Development. Earthscan Publication Ltd, London, UK. p. 40–46.Google Scholar
15 Pretty, J. 2002. Social and human capital for sustainable agriculture. In Uphoff, N. (ed.). Agroecological Innovations – Increasing Food Production with Participatory Development. Earthscan Publications Ltd, London, UK. p. 47–57.Google Scholar
16 Ruttan, V.W. 1999. Institutional constraints on agricultural sustainability. managed ecosystems. In Hatch, U. and Swisher, M.S. (eds). The Mesoamerican Experience. Oxford University Press, New York, USA. p. 10–16.Google Scholar
17 Altieri, M.A., Companioni, N., Cañizares, K., Murphy, C., Rosset, P., Bourque, M., and Nicholls, C.I. 1999. The greening of the ‘barrios’: Urban agriculture for food security in Cuba. Agriculture and Human Values 16(2):131–140.Google Scholar
18 Rosset, P. and Medea, B. 1994. The Greening of the Revolution – Cuba's Experiment with Organic Agriculture. Ocean Press, Melbourne, Australia.Google Scholar
19 Simón Reardon, J.A. and Pérez, R.A. 2010. Agroecology and the development of indicators of food sovereignty in Cuban food systems. Journal of Sustainable Agriculture 34(8):907–922.Google Scholar
20 Gonzalez, C.G. 2003. Seasons of resistance: sustainable agriculture and food security in Cuba. Tulane Environmental Law Journal 16(Special issue):685–732.Google Scholar
21 Ríos, A. 2002. Mechanization, animal traction, and sustainable agriculture. In Funes, F., García, L., Bourque, M., Pérez, N., and Rosset, P. (eds). Sustainable Agriculture and Resistance – Transforming Food Production in Cuba. Food First, Oakland, CA, USA. p. 155–163.Google Scholar
22 Rosset, P.M. and Altieri, M.A. 1997. Agroecology versus input substitution: A fundamental contradiction of sustainable agriculture. Society and Natural Resources: An International Journal 10(3):283–295.Google Scholar
23 OED The Oxford English Dictionary 1992. CD-ROM. 2nd ed. Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK.Google Scholar
24 Stolzenbach, A. 1999. The indigenous concept of experimentation among Malian farmers. Biological and cultural diversity. In Prain, G., Fujisaka, S., and Warren, M.D. (eds). The Role of Indigenous Agricultural Experimentation in Development. Intermediate Technology Publications, London, UK. p. 163–171.Google Scholar
25 Kummer, S. 2011. Organic farmers' experiments in Austria – Learning processes and resilience building in farmers' own experimentation activities. PhD thesis, Department of Sustainable Agricultural Systems, BOKU University, Vienna.Google Scholar
26 Hocdé, H. 1997. Crazy but not mad. In Veldhuizen, L.v., Waters-Bayer, A., Ramirez, R., Johnson, D.A., and Thompson, J. (eds). Farmers' Research in Practice. Intermediate Technology Publications, London, UK. p. 49–68.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
27 Saad, N. 2002 Farmer Processes of Experimentation and Innovation. A Review of the Literature. Participatory Research and Gender Analysis Program, CGIAR, Montpellier, France.Google Scholar
28 Pretty, J. 1991. Farmers' extension practice and technology adaptation: Agricultural revolution in 17–19th century Britain. Agriculture and Human Values 8(1–2):132–148.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
29 Sumberg, J. and Okali, C. 1997. Farmers' Experiments: Creating Local Knowledge. Lynne Rienner Publishers Inc., London, UK.Google Scholar
30 Rajasekaran, B. 1999. Indigenous agricultural experimentation in home gardens of South India: conserving biological diversity and achieving nutritional security. In Prain, G., Fujisaka, S., and Warren, M. D. (eds). Biological and Cultural Diversity. The Role of Indigenous Agricultural Experimentation in Development. Intermediate Technology Publications, London, UK. p. 134–146.Google Scholar
31 Wortmann, C.S., Christiansen, A.P., Glewen, K.L., Hejny, T.A., Mulliken, J., Peterson, J.M., Varner, D.L., Wortmann, S., and Zoubek, G.L. 2005. Farmer research: Conventional experiences and guidelines for alternative agriculture and multi-functional agro-ecosystems. Renewable Agriculture and Food Systems 20(04):243–251.Google Scholar
32 Rogers, E.M. 1995. Diffusion of Innovations. Free Press, New York, USA.Google Scholar
33 Critchley, W.R.S. 2000. Inquiry, initiative and inventiveness: Farmer innovators in East Africa. Physics and Chemistry of the Earth, Part B: Hydrology, Oceans and Atmosphere 25(3):285–288.Google Scholar
34 Haverkort, B. 1991. Farmers' experiments and participatory technology development. In Haverkort, B., Kamp, J. van de, and Waters-Bayer, A. (eds). Joining Farmers' Experiments. Intermediate Technology Publications, London, UK. p. 3–17.Google Scholar
35 Scheuermeier, U. 1997. Let's Try It Out and See How It Works. In Van Veldhuizen, L., Waters-Bayer, A., Ramírez, R., Johnson, D.A., and Thompson, J. (eds). Farmers' Research in Practice. Lessons from the Field. Intermediate Technology Publications, London, UK. p. 31–47.Google Scholar
36 Bentley, J.W. 2006. Folk experiments. Agriculture and Human Values 23(4):451–462.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
37 Richards, M. and Suazo, L. 2006. Learning from success: revisiting experiences of LEIT adoption by hillside farmers in Central Honduras. In Tripp, R. (ed.). Self-Sufficient Agriculture: Labour and Knowledge in Small-Scale Farming. Earthscan, Sterling, USA. p. 95–124.Google Scholar
38 Risbey, J., Kandlikar, M., Dowlatabadi, H., and Graetz, D. 1999. Scale, context, and decision making in agricultural adaptation to climate variability and change. Mitigation and Adaptation Strategies for Global Change 4(2):137–165.Google Scholar
39 Sturdy, J.D., Jewitt, G.P.W., and Lorentz, S.A. 2008. Building an understanding of water use innovation adoption processes through farmer-driven experimentation. Physics and Chemistry of the Earth, Parts A/B/C 33(8–13):859–872.Google Scholar
40 Bunch, R. 1991. People-centered Agricultural Improvement. In Haverkort, B., Kamp, J. van de, and Waters-Bayer, A. (eds). Joining Farmers' Experiments. Intermediate Technology Publication, London, UK. p. 23–49.Google Scholar
41 Quiroz, C. 1999. Farmer experimentation in a Venezuelan Andean group. Biological and Cultural Diversity. In Prain, G., Fujisaka, S., and Warren, M.D. (eds). The Role of Indigenous Agricultural Experimentation in Development. Intermediate Technology Publications, London, UK. p. 113–133.Google Scholar
42 Zigta, A. and Waters-Bayer, A. 2001. Outwitters of water: Outstanding Irob innovation in northern Ethiopia. In Reij, C. and Waters-Bayer, A. (eds). Farmer Innovation in Africa. Earthscan Publications, London, UK. p. 144–154.Google Scholar
43 Nielsen, F. 2001. Why do farmers innovate and why don't they innovate more? Insights from a study in Africa. In Reij, C. and Waters-Bayer, A. (eds). Farmer Innovation in Africa. Earthscan Publications, London, UK. p. 92–193.Google Scholar
44 Connell, J. 1991. Farmers experiment with a new crop. In Haverkort, B., van de Kamp, J., and Waters-Bayer, A. (eds). Joining Farmers' Experiments. Intermediate Technology Publications, London, UK. p. 217–220.Google Scholar
45 Stolzenbach, A. 1997. The craft of farming and experimentation. In Van Veldhuizen, L., Waters-Bayer, A., Ramírez, R., Johnson, D.A., and Thompson, J. (eds). Farmers' Research in Practice. Lessons from the Field. Intermediate Technology Publications, London, UK. p. 39–47.Google Scholar
46 Ortiz, R., Ríos, H., Ponce, M., Acosta, R., Miranda, S., Martin, L., Moreno, I., Martínez, M., Calves, E., Fe, C.d.l., Angarica, L., Gil, V., Quintero, E., Chaveco, O., Rodríguez, N., Valdes, R.J., Yero, Y., Padron, W.R., Mari, J., Ruz, R., Rivas, F., and Estrada, J.C. 2008. Programa Para Fortalecer la Innovación Agropecuaria Local (PIAL). Antecedentes, resultados y perspectivas. VII Encuentro de Agricultura Orgánica y Sostenible. ACTAF, La Habana, Cuba.Google Scholar
47 Waters-Bayer, A. 2005. Innovation Support Funds for Farmer-led Research and Development. IK Notes, World Bank. 85.Google Scholar
48 Machín Sosa, B., Roque Jaime, A.M., Ávila Lozano, D.R., and Rosset, P. 2010. Revolucíon agroecológica: el movimiento de campesino a campesino de la ANAP en Cuba. Cuando el campesino ve, hace fe. La Habana, ANAP and La Vía Campesina.Google Scholar
49 Ríos Labrada, H. 2008. La innovación agropecuaria local y la participación como vías para promover una agricultura más agroecológica y con menores emisiones de gases de efecto de invernadero. VII Encuentro de Agricultura Orgánica y Sostenible. ACTAF, La Habana, Cuba.Google Scholar
50 SDC Swiss Agency for Development and Cooperation 2010. Programme for Local Agrarian Innovation (PIAL) in Cuba. Available at Web site http://www.sdc.admin.ch/en/Home/News/Close_up?itemID=191720 (verified June 16, 2012).Google Scholar
51 Kroma, M.M. 2006. Organic farmer networks: facilitating learning and innovation for sustainable agriculture. Journal of Sustainable Agriculture 28(4):5–28.Google Scholar
52 Leitgeb, F., Funes-Monzote, F., Kummer, S., and Vogl, C.R. 2011. Contribution of farmers' experiments and innovations to Cuba's agricultural innovation system. Renewable Agriculture and Food Systems 26(4):354–367.Google Scholar
53 Bernard, H.R. 2006. Research Methods in Anthropology – Qualitative and Quantitative Approaches. Altamira Press, Walnut Creek, USA.Google Scholar
54 Beer, B. and Fischer, H. 2000. Wissenschaftliche Arbeitstechniken in der Ethnologie: eine Einführung. Dietrich Reimer Verlag, Berlin, Germany.Google Scholar
55 Schlehe, J. 2003. Formen qualitativer ethnographischer interviews. In Beer, B. (ed.). Methoden und Techniken der Feldforschung. Dietrich Reimer Verlag, Berlin, Germany. p. 71–93.Google Scholar
56 Miles, M.B. and Huberman, M.A. 1994. Qualitative data analysis: an expanded sourcebook. Sage Publications, California, USA.Google Scholar
57 Granma 2012. Cuba fomenta nuevos cultivos en agricultura urbana. Available at Web site http://www.granma.cu/espanol/cuba/6febre-Cubafomenta.html (verified June 13, 2012).Google Scholar
58 Johnson, A.W. 1972. Individuality and experimentation in traditional agriculture. Human Ecology 1(2):149–160.Google Scholar
59 Mak, S. 2001. Continued innovation in a Cambodian rice-based farming system: farmer testing and recombination of new elements. Agricultural Systems 69(1–2):137–149.Google Scholar
60 Van Veldhuizen, L., Waters-Bayer, A., Ramirez, R., Johnson, D.A., and Thompson, J., (Eds). 1997. Farmers´ Research in Practice. Lessons from the Field. Intermediate Technology Publications, London, UK.Google Scholar
61 Spielman, D., Davis, K., Negash, M., and Ayele, G. 2011. Rural innovation systems and networks: findings from a study of Ethiopian smallholders. Agriculture and Human Values 28(2):195–212.Google Scholar
62 Reij, C. and Waters-Bayer, A. (eds). 2001. Farmer Innovation in Africa: A Source of Inspiration for Agricultural Development. Earthscan, London, UK.Google Scholar
63 Scoones, I. and Thompson, J. (eds). 1994. Beyond farmer first. Rural People's Knowledge, Agricultural Research and Extension Practice. Intermediate Technology Publications, London, UK.Google Scholar
64 Chambers, R., Pacey, A., and Thrupp, L.A. (eds). 1990. Farmer First – Farmer Innovation and Agricultural Research. Intermediate Technology Publications, London, UK.Google Scholar
65 Wu, B. and Pretty, J. 2004. Social connectedness in marginal rural China: The case of farmer innovation circles in Zhidan, north Shaanxi. Agriculture and Human Values 21:81–92.Google Scholar
66 Bunch, R. 1998. Encouraging farmers' experiments. In Chambers, R., Pacey, A., and Thrupp, L.A. (eds). Farmer First. Farmer Innovation and Agricultural Research. Intermediate Technology Publications, London, UK. p. 55–59.Google Scholar
67 Kilcher, L. 2001. Organic agriculture in Cuba: The revolution goes green. Journal of Agriculture in the Tropics and Subtropics 102(2):185–189.Google Scholar
68 Padel, S. 2001. Conversion to organic farming: A Typical Example of the Diffusion of an Innovation? Sociologia Ruralis 41(1):40–61.Google Scholar
69 König, B. 2003. Hinderungsgründe für die Umstellung von Wein-, Obst- und Gartenbaubetrieben (Gemüsebaubetrieben) auf ökologische Wirtschaftsweisen in verschiedenen Regionen Deutschlands und Möglichkeiten ihrer Minderung. Humbolt-Universität, Berlin, Germany.Google Scholar
70 Hoffmann, V., Probst, K., and Christinck, A. 2007. Farmers and researchers: How can collaborative advantages be created in participatory research and technology development? Agriculture and Human Values 24(3):355–368.Google Scholar
71 Hagmann, J. and Chumab, E. 2002. Enhancing the adaptive capacity of the resource users in natural resource management. Agricultural Systems 73(1):23–39.Google Scholar
72 Tompkins, E.L. and Adger, W.N. 2004. Does adaptive management of natural resources enhance resilience to climate change? Ecology and Society 9(2):10.Google Scholar
73 Milestad, R., Dedieu, B., Darnhofer, I., and Bellon, S. 2012. Farms and farmers facing change: The adaptive approach. In Darnhofer, I., Gibbon, D., and Dedieu, B. (eds). Farming System Research into the 21st Century: The New Dynamic. Springer, Dordrecht, Netherlands. p. 365–385.Google Scholar