Hostname: page-component-6bb9c88b65-bw5xj Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2025-07-26T05:41:55.236Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Empathy in Translation: Movement and Image in the Psychological Laboratory

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  24 July 2012

Susan Lanzoni
Susan Lanzoni*
Affiliation:
Division of Continuing Education, Harvard University E-mail: smlanzoni@gmail.com
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Argument

The new English term “empathy” was translated from the German Einfühlung in the first decade of the twentieth century by the psychologists James Ward at the University of Cambridge and Edward B. Titchener at Cornell. At Titchener's American laboratory, “empathy” was not a matter of understanding other minds, but rather a projection of imagined bodily movements and accompanying feelings into an object, a meaning that drew from its rich nineteenth-century aesthetic heritage. This rendering of “empathy” borrowed kinaesthetic meanings from German sources, but extended beyond a contemplation of the beautiful to include a variety of experimental stimuli and everyday objects in the laboratory. According to Titchener's structural psychology, all higher thought could be reduced to more elemental aspects of mind, and experimental introspection showed empathy to be constituted of kinaesthetic images. The existence of kinaesthetic images, Titchener argued, formed an incisive critique of the view that thought could take place without images, held by one of Titchener's major psychological rivals, the school of thought-psychologists in Würzburg, Germany. The new term “empathy” in early American academic psychology therefore delineated a kinaesthetic imaginative projection that took place on the basis of ontological difference between minds and things.

Information

Type
Research Article
Information
Science in Context , Volume 25 , Issue 3: The Varieties of Empathy in Science, Art, and History , September 2012 , pp. 301 - 327
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 2012

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

Article purchase

Temporarily unavailable

References

References

Bradford, Edward Titchener papers, 1887–1940: #14-23-545. Division of Rare and Manuscript Collections, Cornell University Library. Abbreviated as EBT in text.Google Scholar
Morris, Robert Ogden papers, 1889–1959: # 14-23-467. Division of Rare and Manuscript Collections, Cornell University Library. Abbreviated as RMO in text.Google Scholar
Ward, James Correspondence, Trinity College Archive and Manuscript Collection, Cambridge University. Abbreviated as TCA in text.Google Scholar
Alberti, Fay Bound, ed. 2006. Medicine, Emotion and Disease, 1700–1950. Hampshire: Palgrave Macmillan.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Allesch, Christian G. 1987. Geschichte der psychologischen Ästhetik. Göttingen: Verlag für Psychologie.Google Scholar
Baldwin, J. Mark. 1908. “Knowledge and Imagination.” Psychological Review 15:181–196.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Baldwin, J. Mark, ed. 1901–1905. Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, vol. 2. New York: Macmillan.Google Scholar
Barasch, Moshe. 1998. Modern Theories of Art, 2: From Impressionism to Kandinsky. New York: New York University Press.Google Scholar
Barker-Benfield, G. J. 1992. The Culture of Sensibility: Sex and Society in Eighteenth-Century Britain. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Bastian, H. Charlton. 1880. The Brain as an Organ of Mind. New York: Appleton.Google Scholar
Binet, Alfred. 1903. L'étude expérimentale de l'intelligence. Paris: Schleicher Frères & Cie.Google Scholar
Bordogna, Francesca. 2005. “Scientific Personae in American Psychology: Three Case Studies.” Studies in History and Philosophy of Biological and Biomedical Sciences 36:95–134.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Boring, Edwin G. 1927. “Edward Bradford Titchener, 1867–1927.” American Journal of Psychology 38 (4):489–506.Google Scholar
Brock, Adrian. 1991. “Imageless Thought or Stimulus Error? The Social Construction of Private Experience.” In World Views and Scientific Discipline Formation, edited by Woodward, William Ray and Sonné Cohen, Robert, 97–106. Dordrecht: Kluwer.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bruno, Giuliana. 2009. “Film, Aesthetics, Science: Hugo Münsterberg's Laboratory of Moving Images.” Grey Room 36:88–113.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Calkins, Mary Whiton. 1910. “Professor Titchener on the Thought Processes.” Psychological Bulletin 7 (9):293–297.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cattell, James McKeen. 1917. “Our Psychological Association and Research.” Science, New Series 45 (1160):275–284.Google ScholarPubMed
Clarke, Helen Maud. 1911. “Conscious Attitudes.” American Journal of Psychology 22 (2):214–249.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cobbey, Lillian West and Helen Sullivan, Alice. 1922. “An Experimental Study of the Perception of Oiliness.” American Journal of Psychology 33 (1):212–227.Google Scholar
Colvin, Stephen S. 1908. “The Nature of the Mental Image.” Psychological Review 15 (3):158–169.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Colvin, Stephen S. 1909. “Methods of Determining Ideational Types.” Psychological Bulletin 6 (7):223–237.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Colvin, Stephen S. 1910. “A Marked Case of Mimetic Ideation.” Psychological Review 17 (4):260–268.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cornell Alumni News. 1919. 21(39).Google Scholar
Curtis, Robin, and Koch, Gertud. 2009. Einfühlung: Zu Geschichte und Gegenwart eines ästhetischen Konzepts. Munich: Wilhelm Fink Verlag.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Curtis, Scott. 2009. “Einfühlung und die frühe deutsche Filmtheorie.” In Einfühlung: Zu Geschichte und Gegenwart eines ästhetischen Konzepts, edited by Curtis, Robin and Koch, Gertud, 79–102. Munich: Wilhelm Fink Verlag.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Danziger, Kurt. 1990. Constructing the Subject: Historical Origins of Psychological Research. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Davidson, Arnold. 2002. The Emergence of Sexuality: Historical Epistemology and the Formation of Concepts. Cambridge MA: Harvard University Press.Google Scholar
Daston, Lorraine and Galison, Peter. 2007. Objectivity. New York: Zone Books.Google Scholar
Deonna, Julien. 2007. “The Structure of Empathy.” Journal of Moral Philosophy 4 (1):99–116.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dilthey, Wilhelm. [1894] 1977. “Ideas Concerning a Descriptive and Analytic Psychology” and “The Understanding of Other Persons and Their Expressions of Life.” In Descriptive Psychology and Historical Understanding, translated by Zaner, Richard M. and Heiges, Kenneth L.. The Hague: Martinus Nijhoff.Google Scholar
Downey, June. 1929. Creative Imagination: Studies in the Psychology of Literature. New York: Harcourt, Brace.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Evans, Rand B. 1990. “The Scientific and Psychological Positions of E.B. Titchener.” In Defining American Psychology The Correspondence between Adolf Meyer and E.B. Titchener, edited by Leys, Ruth and Evans, Rand B., 1–39. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press.Google Scholar
Ewald, Oscar. 1908. “German Philosophy in 1907.” Philosophical Review 17 (4):400–426.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fisher, Sara Carolyn. 1917. “An Analysis of a Phase of the Process of Classifying.” American Journal of Psychology 28 (1):57–116.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Friedrich, Thomas and Gleiter, Jörg, eds. 2007. Einfühlung und phänomenologische Reduktion: Grundlagentexte zu Architektur, Design und Kunst. Berlin: Lit Verlag.Google Scholar
Geiger, Moritz. 1911. “Über das Wesen und die Bedeutung der Einfühlung.” In Bericht über den IV. Kongress für experimentelle Psychologie. Innsbruck, April 1910. Leipzig: Verlag von Johann Ambrosius Barth.Google Scholar
Gladstein, Gerald. 1984. “The Historical Roots of Contemporary Empathy Research.” Journal of the History of the Behavioral Sciences 20:38–59.3.0.CO;2-1>CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gordon, Kate. 1934. “A Device for Demonstrating Empathy.” Journal of Experimental Psychology 17 (6):892–893.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Green, Christopher D. 2010. “Scientific Objectivity and E. B. Titchener's Experimental Psychology.” Isis 101 (4):697–721.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Groos, Karl. 1902. Der aesthetische Genuss. Giessen: J. Ricker.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hacking, Ian. 2002. Historical Ontology. Cambridge MA: Harvard University Press.Google Scholar
Heidbreder, Edna. 1933. Seven Psychologies. New York: Appleton-Century Crofts.Google Scholar
Henle, Mary. 1971. “Did Titchener Commit the Stimulus Error? The Problem of Meaning in Structural Psychology.” Journal of the History of the Behavioral Sciences 7 (3):277–282.3.0.CO;2-2>CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hindeland, Michael J. 1971. “Edward Bradford Titchener: A Pioneer in Perception.” Journal of the History of the Behavioral Sciences 7 (1):23–28.3.0.CO;2-V>CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hoernle, R. F. Alfred. 1914. Mind New Series 23 (92):597–604, 600. Review of A.C. Macmillan, The Crowning Phase of the Critical Philosophy; A Study in Kant's Critique of Judgment (London: Macmillan, 1912).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Howes, Ethel Puffer. 1913. “Aesthetics.” Psychological Bulletin 10 (5):196–200.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hull, Callie. 1920. “Doctorates, Conferred in the Sciences by American Universities in 1920.” Science, New Series 52 (1352):514–17.Google ScholarPubMed
Humphrey, George. 1951.Thinking: An Introduction to its Experimental Psychology. London: Methuen.Google Scholar
Hunsdahl, Jørgen B. 1967. “Concerning Einfühlung (Empathy): A Concept Analysis of its Origin and Early Development.” Journal of the History of the Behavioral Sciences 3 (2):180–191.3.0.CO;2-G>CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jacobson, Edmund. 1911. “On Meaning and Understanding.” American Journal of Psychology 22 (4):553–577.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jahoda, Gustav. 2005. “Theodor Lipps and the Shift from ‘Sympathy’ to ‘Empathy’.” Journal of the History of the Behavioral Sciences 4 (2):151–163.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jarzombek, Mark. 2000. The Psychologizing of Modernity: Art, Architecture, and History. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Koss, Juliet. 2006. “On the Limits of Empathy.” Art Bulletin 88 (1):139–57.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kroker, Kenton. 2003. “The Progress of Introspection in America, 1896–1938.” Studies in History and Philosophy of Biological and Biomedical Sciences 34:77–108.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kuhlmann, Fred. 1905. “The Place of Mental Imagery and Memory among Mental Functions.” American Journal of Psychology 16 (3):337–356.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Külpe, Oswald. 1895. Outlines of Psychology. Translated by Titchener, Edward B.. London. Swan Sonnenschein.Google Scholar
Külpe, Oswald. 1897. Introduction to Philosophy. Translated by Pillsbury, Walter Bowers and Titchener, Edward Bradford. London. Swan Sonnenschein.Google Scholar
Kusch, Martin. 1999. Psychological Knowledge: A Social History and Philosophy. London: Routledge.Google Scholar
Langfeld, Herbert Sidney. [1920] 1967. The Aesthetic Attitude. Port Washington NY: Kennikat Press.Google Scholar
Lanzoni, Susan. 2003. “An Epistemology of the Clinic: Ludwig Binswanger's Phenomenology of the Other.” Critical Inquiry 30:160–186.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lanzoni, Susan. 2006. “Diagnosing with Feeling: The Clinical Assessment of Schizophrenia in early Twentieth Century European Psychiatry.” In Emotions, Medicine and Disease, 1750–1950, edited by Alberti, Fay Bound, 169–190. Hampshire: Palgrave Macmillan.Google Scholar
Lanzoni, Susan. 2009. “Practicing Psychology in the Art Gallery: Vernon Lee's Aesthetics of Empathy” Journal of the History of the Behavioral Sciences 45 (4):330–354.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lay, Wilfred. 1904. “Organic Images.” Journal of Philosophy, Psychology and Scientific Methods 1 (3):68–71.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lee, Vernon and Anstruther-Thomson, Clementina. 1897. “Beauty and Ugliness.” Contemporary Review 72:544–569; 669–688.Google Scholar
Lee, Vernon and Anstruther-Thomson, Clementina. 1912. Beauty and Ugliness and Other Studies in Psychological Aesthetics. London: John Lane, Bodley Head.Google Scholar
Lipps, Theodor. 1900. “Dritter aesthetischer Litteraturbericht” III, Archiv für Systematische Philosophie 6 (3):377–409.Google Scholar
Lipps, Theodor. 1902. “Von der Form der aesthetischen Apperception.” In Philosophische Abhandlungen. Gedenkschrift für Rudolf Haym. Halle: Max Niemeyer.Google Scholar
Lipps, Theodor. [1903] 1923. Grundlegung der Ästhetik, vol. 1. Leipzig: Verlag Leopold Voss.Google Scholar
Lipps, Theodor. 1903a. Leitfaden der Psychologie. Leipzig: Engelmann.Google Scholar
Lipps, Theodor. [1903b] 1960. “Empathy, Inner Imitation, and Sense Feelings.” In A Modern Book of Esthetics, edited by Rader, Melvin. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston.Google Scholar
Lipps, Theodor. [1906] 1920. Aesthetik: Psychologie des Schönen und der Kunst. Die ästhetische Betrachtung und die bildende Kunst, vol. 2. Leipzig: Leopold Voss.Google Scholar
Listowel, William Hare, Earl of. 1933. A Critical History of Modern Aesthetics. London: G. Allen and Unwin.Google Scholar
Makkreel, Rudolf. 2000. “From Simulation to Structural Transposition: A Diltheyean Critique of Empathy and Defense of Verstehen.” In Empathy and Agency: The Problem of Understanding in the Human Sciences, 181–193. Boulder CO: Westview Press.Google Scholar
Mallgrave, Harry Francis and Elefttheriois, Ikonomou. 1994. “Introduction.” In Empathy, Form and Space: Problems in German Aesthetics, 1873–1893. Santa Monica CA: Getty Center.Google Scholar
Marbe, Karl. 1901. Experimentall-Psychologische Untersuchungen über das Urteil: Ein Einleitung in die Logik. Leipzig: Engelmann.Google Scholar
Marshall, David. 1984. “Adam Smith and the Theatricality of Moral Sentiments.” Critical Inquiry 10 (4):592–613.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Marshall, David. 1988. The Surprising Effects of Sympathy: Marivaux, Diderot, Rousseau and Mary Shelley. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Mayer, August and Orth, Johannes. 1901. “Zur qualitativen Untersuchung der Assoziationen.” Zeitschrift für Psychologie 26:1–13.Google Scholar
Mead, George Herbert. 1904. “Image or Sensation.” Journal of Philosophy 1 (22):604–607.Google Scholar
Miner, Burt. 1904. “The Changing Attitude of American Universities Toward Psychology.” Science, New Series 20 (505):299–307.Google ScholarPubMed
Münsterberg, Hugo. [1916] 1970. The Film: A Psychological Study (original title: The Photoplay). New York: Dover.Google Scholar
Münsterberg, Hugo. 1908. Philosophie der Werte. Grundzüge einer Weltanschauung. Leipzig: Verlag von Johann Ambrosius Barth.Google Scholar
Münsterberg, Hugo. 1909. The Eternal Values. Boston: Houghton Mifflin.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Myers, Charles S. 1909. Text-Book of Experimental Psychology. London: Edward Arnold.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
“Notes.” 1908. Philosophical Review 17 (6):694.Google Scholar
“Notes and News.” 1914. Journal of Philosophy, Psychology and Scientific Methods 11:721.Google Scholar
Nye, Robert A. 1997. “Medicine and Science as Masculine ‘Fields of Honor’.” Osiris, 2d series, 12:60–79.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ogden, Robert. 1909. “Reports and Discussion, Sixth International Congress of Psychology.” Psychological Bulletin 11:389–97.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ogden, Robert. 1911. “Imageless Thought: Résumé and Critique.” Psychological Bulletin 8 (6):183–197.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ogden, Robert. 1911a. “The Unconscious Bias of Laboratories.” Psychological Bulletin 8 (9):330–331.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ogden, Robert. 1938. The Psychology of Art. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons.Google Scholar
Okabe, Tamekichi. 1910. “Experimental Study of Belief.” American Journal of Psychology 21 (4):563–596.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Perky, Cheves. 1910. “An Experimental Study of Imagination.” American Journal of Psychology 21 (3):422–452.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
“Philosophical Periodicals.” 1900. Mind New Series 9 (36) October.Google Scholar
“Philosophical Periodicals.” 1901. Mind New Series 10 (39) July.Google Scholar
“Philosophical Periodicals.” 1908. Mind New Series 17 (68) October.Google Scholar
Pinotti, Andrea. 2010. “Empathy.” In Handbook of Phenomenological Aesthetics, edited by Rainer Sepp, Hans and Embree, Lester, 93–98. Dordrecht: Springer.Google Scholar
Ringer, Fritz. 1969. The Decline of the German Mandarins. Hanover: Wesleyan University Press.Google Scholar
Rogers, Anna. 1917. “An Analytic Study of Visual Perceptions.” American Journal of Psychology 28 (4):519–577.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rossiter, Margaret. 1982. Women Scientists in America: Struggles and Strategies to 1940. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Elizabeth, Scarborough, and Furumoto, Laurel. 1987. Untold Lives: The First Generation of American Women Psychologists. New York: Columbia University Press.Google Scholar
Schaub, De Vries Alma. 1911. “On the Intensity of Images.” American Journal of Psychology 22:346–368.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Scheler, Max. 1970. The Nature of Sympathy. Translated by Heath, Peter. Hamden CT: Archon Books.Google Scholar
Schmarsow, August. [1896] 2007. Über den Werth der Dimensionen im menschlichen Raumgebilde, 107–122. reprinted in Friedrich, Thomas and Gleiter, Jörg, eds. 2007. Einfühlung und phänomenologische Reduktion: Grundlagentexte zu Architektur, Design und Kunst. Berlin: Lit Verlag.Google Scholar
Silverman, Kaja. 1996. Threshold of the Visible World. New York: Routledge.Google Scholar
Southard, Elmer Ernest. 1918. “The Empathic Index in the Diagnosis of Mental Diseases.” Journal of Abnormal Psychology 13 (40):199–214.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Spearman, Charles. 1909. “Review of C. S. Myers, Text-book of Experimental Psychology. Mind.” 18 (72):617–618.Google Scholar
Stout, George Frederick. 1896. Analytic Psychology, vol. 1. London: Swan Sonnenschein.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sullivan, Alice. 1921. “An Experimental Study of Kinaesthetic Imagery.” American Journal of Psychology 32 (1):54–80.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Thomas, Nigel J. T. 2010. “The Perky Experiment.” In Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/mental-imagery/perky-experiment.html (last accessed July 25, 2010).Google Scholar
Titchener, Edward B. 1895. “A Psychophysical Vocabulary.” American Journal of Psychology 7 (1):78–85.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Titchener, Edward B. 1904. “Organic Images.” Journal of Philosophy, Psychology and Scientific Methods 1 (2):36–40.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Titchener, Edward B. 1908. Lectures on the Elementary Psychology of Feeling and Attention. New York: MacMillan.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Titchener, Edward B. 1909a. A Text-book of Psychology. Part 1. New York: Macmillan.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Titchener, Edward B. 1909b. Experimental Psychology of the Thought-Processes. New York: MacMillan.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Titchener, Edward B. 1910a. “The Past Decade in Experimental Psychology.” American Journal of Psychology 21 (3):404–421.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Titchener, Edward B. 1910b. A Text-Book of Psychology. New York: Macmillan.Google Scholar
Titchener, Edward B. 1912. “Prolegomena to a Study of Introspection.” American Journal of Psychology 23 (3):427–448.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Titchener, Edward B. 1915. A Beginner's Psychology. New York: Macmillan.Google Scholar
Titchener, Edward B. [1899] 1916. An Outline of Psychology. New York: MacMillan.Google Scholar
Titchener, Edward B. 1929. Systematic Psychology: Prolegomena. New York: Macmillan.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Titchener, Edward B. and Hunter, Thomas. 1969. The Letters between Sir Thomas Hunter and E.B. Titchener, edited by Brown, Laurence B. and Fuchs, Alfred H.. Wellington: Department of Psychology, Victoria Univerisity.Google Scholar
Topics of the Times. 1907. “Torture for no Purpose,” New York Times, Jan. 1.Google Scholar
Urban, Wilbur M. 1901. “Review, Zur psychologischen Analyse der aesthetischen Einfühlung by Stephan Witasek.” Psychological Review 8 (4):432–435.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Vila, Anne C. 1998. Enlightenment and Pathology: Sensibility in the Literature and Medicine of Eighteenth Century France. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Vischer, Robert. [1873] 1994. “On the Optical Sense of Form.” In Empathy, Form and Space: Problems in German Aesthetics, 1873–1893, edited by Francis Mallgrave, Harry and Eleftherios, Ikonomou, 89–123. Santa Monica: Getty Center for the History of Art and the Humanities.Google Scholar
Volkelt, Johannes. 1876. Der Symbol-Begriff in der neuesten Aesthetik. Jena: Hermann Dufft.Google Scholar
Wade, Nicholas J. 2009. “The Search for a Sixth Sense: The Cases for Vestibular, Muscle, and Temperature Senses.” In The Sixth Sense Reader, edited by Howes, David, 55–85. Oxford: Berg.Google Scholar
Warren, Howard C. 1934. Dictionary of Psychology. Boston: Houghton Mifflin.Google Scholar
Washburn, Margaret Floy. 1916. Movement and Mental Imagery: Outlines of a Motor Theory of the Complexer Mental Processes. Boston: Houghton Mifflin.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Watson, John B. 1907. “Kinesthetic and Organic Sensations: Their Role in the Reactions of the White Rat to the Maze.” Psychological Review Monograph Supplements 8 (2):1–100.Google Scholar
Weld, Harry Porter. 1912. “An Experimental Study of Musical Enjoyment.” American Journal of Psychology 23 (2):245–308.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wispé, Lauren. 1987. “History of the Concept of Empathy.” In Empathy and Its Development, edited by Eisenberg, Nancy and Strayer, Janet, 17–37. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Wodehouse, Helen. 1910. “The Apprehension of Feeling.” Mind, New Series 19 (76):523–532.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wölfflin, Heinrich. [1886] 2007. Prolegomena zu einer Psychologie der Architektur, 71–106. Reprinted in Friedrich, Thomas and Gleiter, Jörg, eds. 2007. Einfühlung und phänomenologische Reduktion: Grundlagentexte zu Architektur, Design und Kunst. Berlin: Lit Verlag.Google Scholar
Woodworth, Robert S. 1906. “Imageless Thought.” Journal of Philosophy, Psychology and Scientific Methods 3 (26):701–708.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wundt, Wilhelm. 1901, Lectures on Human and Animal Psychology. Translated by Creighton, James E. and Titchener, Edward B.. London: Swan Sonnenschein.Google Scholar
Wundt, Wilhelm. 1904. Principles of Physiological Psychology, vol. 1. Translated by Titchener, Edward B.. London. Swan Sonnenschein.Google Scholar
Wundt, Wilhelm. 1908. Völkerpsychologie, III: Die Kunst. Leipzig: Engelmann.Google Scholar
Zigler, Michael. 1920. “An Experimental Study of Visual Form.” American Journal of Psychology 31 (3):273–300.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bradford, Edward Titchener papers, 1887–1940: #14-23-545. Division of Rare and Manuscript Collections, Cornell University Library. Abbreviated as EBT in text.Google Scholar
Morris, Robert Ogden papers, 1889–1959: # 14-23-467. Division of Rare and Manuscript Collections, Cornell University Library. Abbreviated as RMO in text.Google Scholar
Ward, James Correspondence, Trinity College Archive and Manuscript Collection, Cambridge University. Abbreviated as TCA in text.Google Scholar
Alberti, Fay Bound, ed. 2006. Medicine, Emotion and Disease, 1700–1950. Hampshire: Palgrave Macmillan.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Allesch, Christian G. 1987. Geschichte der psychologischen Ästhetik. Göttingen: Verlag für Psychologie.Google Scholar
Baldwin, J. Mark. 1908. “Knowledge and Imagination.” Psychological Review 15:181–196.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Baldwin, J. Mark, ed. 1901–1905. Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, vol. 2. New York: Macmillan.Google Scholar
Barasch, Moshe. 1998. Modern Theories of Art, 2: From Impressionism to Kandinsky. New York: New York University Press.Google Scholar
Barker-Benfield, G. J. 1992. The Culture of Sensibility: Sex and Society in Eighteenth-Century Britain. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Bastian, H. Charlton. 1880. The Brain as an Organ of Mind. New York: Appleton.Google Scholar
Binet, Alfred. 1903. L'étude expérimentale de l'intelligence. Paris: Schleicher Frères & Cie.Google Scholar
Bordogna, Francesca. 2005. “Scientific Personae in American Psychology: Three Case Studies.” Studies in History and Philosophy of Biological and Biomedical Sciences 36:95–134.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Boring, Edwin G. 1927. “Edward Bradford Titchener, 1867–1927.” American Journal of Psychology 38 (4):489–506.Google Scholar
Brock, Adrian. 1991. “Imageless Thought or Stimulus Error? The Social Construction of Private Experience.” In World Views and Scientific Discipline Formation, edited by Woodward, William Ray and Sonné Cohen, Robert, 97–106. Dordrecht: Kluwer.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bruno, Giuliana. 2009. “Film, Aesthetics, Science: Hugo Münsterberg's Laboratory of Moving Images.” Grey Room 36:88–113.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Calkins, Mary Whiton. 1910. “Professor Titchener on the Thought Processes.” Psychological Bulletin 7 (9):293–297.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cattell, James McKeen. 1917. “Our Psychological Association and Research.” Science, New Series 45 (1160):275–284.Google ScholarPubMed
Clarke, Helen Maud. 1911. “Conscious Attitudes.” American Journal of Psychology 22 (2):214–249.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cobbey, Lillian West and Helen Sullivan, Alice. 1922. “An Experimental Study of the Perception of Oiliness.” American Journal of Psychology 33 (1):212–227.Google Scholar
Colvin, Stephen S. 1908. “The Nature of the Mental Image.” Psychological Review 15 (3):158–169.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Colvin, Stephen S. 1909. “Methods of Determining Ideational Types.” Psychological Bulletin 6 (7):223–237.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Colvin, Stephen S. 1910. “A Marked Case of Mimetic Ideation.” Psychological Review 17 (4):260–268.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cornell Alumni News. 1919. 21(39).Google Scholar
Curtis, Robin, and Koch, Gertud. 2009. Einfühlung: Zu Geschichte und Gegenwart eines ästhetischen Konzepts. Munich: Wilhelm Fink Verlag.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Curtis, Scott. 2009. “Einfühlung und die frühe deutsche Filmtheorie.” In Einfühlung: Zu Geschichte und Gegenwart eines ästhetischen Konzepts, edited by Curtis, Robin and Koch, Gertud, 79–102. Munich: Wilhelm Fink Verlag.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Danziger, Kurt. 1990. Constructing the Subject: Historical Origins of Psychological Research. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Davidson, Arnold. 2002. The Emergence of Sexuality: Historical Epistemology and the Formation of Concepts. Cambridge MA: Harvard University Press.Google Scholar
Daston, Lorraine and Galison, Peter. 2007. Objectivity. New York: Zone Books.Google Scholar
Deonna, Julien. 2007. “The Structure of Empathy.” Journal of Moral Philosophy 4 (1):99–116.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dilthey, Wilhelm. [1894] 1977. “Ideas Concerning a Descriptive and Analytic Psychology” and “The Understanding of Other Persons and Their Expressions of Life.” In Descriptive Psychology and Historical Understanding, translated by Zaner, Richard M. and Heiges, Kenneth L.. The Hague: Martinus Nijhoff.Google Scholar
Downey, June. 1929. Creative Imagination: Studies in the Psychology of Literature. New York: Harcourt, Brace.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Evans, Rand B. 1990. “The Scientific and Psychological Positions of E.B. Titchener.” In Defining American Psychology The Correspondence between Adolf Meyer and E.B. Titchener, edited by Leys, Ruth and Evans, Rand B., 1–39. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press.Google Scholar
Ewald, Oscar. 1908. “German Philosophy in 1907.” Philosophical Review 17 (4):400–426.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fisher, Sara Carolyn. 1917. “An Analysis of a Phase of the Process of Classifying.” American Journal of Psychology 28 (1):57–116.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Friedrich, Thomas and Gleiter, Jörg, eds. 2007. Einfühlung und phänomenologische Reduktion: Grundlagentexte zu Architektur, Design und Kunst. Berlin: Lit Verlag.Google Scholar
Geiger, Moritz. 1911. “Über das Wesen und die Bedeutung der Einfühlung.” In Bericht über den IV. Kongress für experimentelle Psychologie. Innsbruck, April 1910. Leipzig: Verlag von Johann Ambrosius Barth.Google Scholar
Gladstein, Gerald. 1984. “The Historical Roots of Contemporary Empathy Research.” Journal of the History of the Behavioral Sciences 20:38–59.3.0.CO;2-1>CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gordon, Kate. 1934. “A Device for Demonstrating Empathy.” Journal of Experimental Psychology 17 (6):892–893.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Green, Christopher D. 2010. “Scientific Objectivity and E. B. Titchener's Experimental Psychology.” Isis 101 (4):697–721.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Groos, Karl. 1902. Der aesthetische Genuss. Giessen: J. Ricker.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hacking, Ian. 2002. Historical Ontology. Cambridge MA: Harvard University Press.Google Scholar
Heidbreder, Edna. 1933. Seven Psychologies. New York: Appleton-Century Crofts.Google Scholar
Henle, Mary. 1971. “Did Titchener Commit the Stimulus Error? The Problem of Meaning in Structural Psychology.” Journal of the History of the Behavioral Sciences 7 (3):277–282.3.0.CO;2-2>CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hindeland, Michael J. 1971. “Edward Bradford Titchener: A Pioneer in Perception.” Journal of the History of the Behavioral Sciences 7 (1):23–28.3.0.CO;2-V>CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hoernle, R. F. Alfred. 1914. Mind New Series 23 (92):597–604, 600. Review of A.C. Macmillan, The Crowning Phase of the Critical Philosophy; A Study in Kant's Critique of Judgment (London: Macmillan, 1912).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Howes, Ethel Puffer. 1913. “Aesthetics.” Psychological Bulletin 10 (5):196–200.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hull, Callie. 1920. “Doctorates, Conferred in the Sciences by American Universities in 1920.” Science, New Series 52 (1352):514–17.Google ScholarPubMed
Humphrey, George. 1951.Thinking: An Introduction to its Experimental Psychology. London: Methuen.Google Scholar
Hunsdahl, Jørgen B. 1967. “Concerning Einfühlung (Empathy): A Concept Analysis of its Origin and Early Development.” Journal of the History of the Behavioral Sciences 3 (2):180–191.3.0.CO;2-G>CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jacobson, Edmund. 1911. “On Meaning and Understanding.” American Journal of Psychology 22 (4):553–577.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jahoda, Gustav. 2005. “Theodor Lipps and the Shift from ‘Sympathy’ to ‘Empathy’.” Journal of the History of the Behavioral Sciences 4 (2):151–163.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jarzombek, Mark. 2000. The Psychologizing of Modernity: Art, Architecture, and History. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Koss, Juliet. 2006. “On the Limits of Empathy.” Art Bulletin 88 (1):139–57.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kroker, Kenton. 2003. “The Progress of Introspection in America, 1896–1938.” Studies in History and Philosophy of Biological and Biomedical Sciences 34:77–108.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kuhlmann, Fred. 1905. “The Place of Mental Imagery and Memory among Mental Functions.” American Journal of Psychology 16 (3):337–356.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Külpe, Oswald. 1895. Outlines of Psychology. Translated by Titchener, Edward B.. London. Swan Sonnenschein.Google Scholar
Külpe, Oswald. 1897. Introduction to Philosophy. Translated by Pillsbury, Walter Bowers and Titchener, Edward Bradford. London. Swan Sonnenschein.Google Scholar
Kusch, Martin. 1999. Psychological Knowledge: A Social History and Philosophy. London: Routledge.Google Scholar
Langfeld, Herbert Sidney. [1920] 1967. The Aesthetic Attitude. Port Washington NY: Kennikat Press.Google Scholar
Lanzoni, Susan. 2003. “An Epistemology of the Clinic: Ludwig Binswanger's Phenomenology of the Other.” Critical Inquiry 30:160–186.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lanzoni, Susan. 2006. “Diagnosing with Feeling: The Clinical Assessment of Schizophrenia in early Twentieth Century European Psychiatry.” In Emotions, Medicine and Disease, 1750–1950, edited by Alberti, Fay Bound, 169–190. Hampshire: Palgrave Macmillan.Google Scholar
Lanzoni, Susan. 2009. “Practicing Psychology in the Art Gallery: Vernon Lee's Aesthetics of Empathy” Journal of the History of the Behavioral Sciences 45 (4):330–354.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lay, Wilfred. 1904. “Organic Images.” Journal of Philosophy, Psychology and Scientific Methods 1 (3):68–71.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lee, Vernon and Anstruther-Thomson, Clementina. 1897. “Beauty and Ugliness.” Contemporary Review 72:544–569; 669–688.Google Scholar
Lee, Vernon and Anstruther-Thomson, Clementina. 1912. Beauty and Ugliness and Other Studies in Psychological Aesthetics. London: John Lane, Bodley Head.Google Scholar
Lipps, Theodor. 1900. “Dritter aesthetischer Litteraturbericht” III, Archiv für Systematische Philosophie 6 (3):377–409.Google Scholar
Lipps, Theodor. 1902. “Von der Form der aesthetischen Apperception.” In Philosophische Abhandlungen. Gedenkschrift für Rudolf Haym. Halle: Max Niemeyer.Google Scholar
Lipps, Theodor. [1903] 1923. Grundlegung der Ästhetik, vol. 1. Leipzig: Verlag Leopold Voss.Google Scholar
Lipps, Theodor. 1903a. Leitfaden der Psychologie. Leipzig: Engelmann.Google Scholar
Lipps, Theodor. [1903b] 1960. “Empathy, Inner Imitation, and Sense Feelings.” In A Modern Book of Esthetics, edited by Rader, Melvin. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston.Google Scholar
Lipps, Theodor. [1906] 1920. Aesthetik: Psychologie des Schönen und der Kunst. Die ästhetische Betrachtung und die bildende Kunst, vol. 2. Leipzig: Leopold Voss.Google Scholar
Listowel, William Hare, Earl of. 1933. A Critical History of Modern Aesthetics. London: G. Allen and Unwin.Google Scholar
Makkreel, Rudolf. 2000. “From Simulation to Structural Transposition: A Diltheyean Critique of Empathy and Defense of Verstehen.” In Empathy and Agency: The Problem of Understanding in the Human Sciences, 181–193. Boulder CO: Westview Press.Google Scholar
Mallgrave, Harry Francis and Elefttheriois, Ikonomou. 1994. “Introduction.” In Empathy, Form and Space: Problems in German Aesthetics, 1873–1893. Santa Monica CA: Getty Center.Google Scholar
Marbe, Karl. 1901. Experimentall-Psychologische Untersuchungen über das Urteil: Ein Einleitung in die Logik. Leipzig: Engelmann.Google Scholar
Marshall, David. 1984. “Adam Smith and the Theatricality of Moral Sentiments.” Critical Inquiry 10 (4):592–613.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Marshall, David. 1988. The Surprising Effects of Sympathy: Marivaux, Diderot, Rousseau and Mary Shelley. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Mayer, August and Orth, Johannes. 1901. “Zur qualitativen Untersuchung der Assoziationen.” Zeitschrift für Psychologie 26:1–13.Google Scholar
Mead, George Herbert. 1904. “Image or Sensation.” Journal of Philosophy 1 (22):604–607.Google Scholar
Miner, Burt. 1904. “The Changing Attitude of American Universities Toward Psychology.” Science, New Series 20 (505):299–307.Google ScholarPubMed
Münsterberg, Hugo. [1916] 1970. The Film: A Psychological Study (original title: The Photoplay). New York: Dover.Google Scholar
Münsterberg, Hugo. 1908. Philosophie der Werte. Grundzüge einer Weltanschauung. Leipzig: Verlag von Johann Ambrosius Barth.Google Scholar
Münsterberg, Hugo. 1909. The Eternal Values. Boston: Houghton Mifflin.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Myers, Charles S. 1909. Text-Book of Experimental Psychology. London: Edward Arnold.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
“Notes.” 1908. Philosophical Review 17 (6):694.Google Scholar
“Notes and News.” 1914. Journal of Philosophy, Psychology and Scientific Methods 11:721.Google Scholar
Nye, Robert A. 1997. “Medicine and Science as Masculine ‘Fields of Honor’.” Osiris, 2d series, 12:60–79.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ogden, Robert. 1909. “Reports and Discussion, Sixth International Congress of Psychology.” Psychological Bulletin 11:389–97.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ogden, Robert. 1911. “Imageless Thought: Résumé and Critique.” Psychological Bulletin 8 (6):183–197.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ogden, Robert. 1911a. “The Unconscious Bias of Laboratories.” Psychological Bulletin 8 (9):330–331.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ogden, Robert. 1938. The Psychology of Art. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons.Google Scholar
Okabe, Tamekichi. 1910. “Experimental Study of Belief.” American Journal of Psychology 21 (4):563–596.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Perky, Cheves. 1910. “An Experimental Study of Imagination.” American Journal of Psychology 21 (3):422–452.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
“Philosophical Periodicals.” 1900. Mind New Series 9 (36) October.Google Scholar
“Philosophical Periodicals.” 1901. Mind New Series 10 (39) July.Google Scholar
“Philosophical Periodicals.” 1908. Mind New Series 17 (68) October.Google Scholar
Pinotti, Andrea. 2010. “Empathy.” In Handbook of Phenomenological Aesthetics, edited by Rainer Sepp, Hans and Embree, Lester, 93–98. Dordrecht: Springer.Google Scholar
Ringer, Fritz. 1969. The Decline of the German Mandarins. Hanover: Wesleyan University Press.Google Scholar
Rogers, Anna. 1917. “An Analytic Study of Visual Perceptions.” American Journal of Psychology 28 (4):519–577.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rossiter, Margaret. 1982. Women Scientists in America: Struggles and Strategies to 1940. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Elizabeth, Scarborough, and Furumoto, Laurel. 1987. Untold Lives: The First Generation of American Women Psychologists. New York: Columbia University Press.Google Scholar
Schaub, De Vries Alma. 1911. “On the Intensity of Images.” American Journal of Psychology 22:346–368.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Scheler, Max. 1970. The Nature of Sympathy. Translated by Heath, Peter. Hamden CT: Archon Books.Google Scholar
Schmarsow, August. [1896] 2007. Über den Werth der Dimensionen im menschlichen Raumgebilde, 107–122. reprinted in Friedrich, Thomas and Gleiter, Jörg, eds. 2007. Einfühlung und phänomenologische Reduktion: Grundlagentexte zu Architektur, Design und Kunst. Berlin: Lit Verlag.Google Scholar
Silverman, Kaja. 1996. Threshold of the Visible World. New York: Routledge.Google Scholar
Southard, Elmer Ernest. 1918. “The Empathic Index in the Diagnosis of Mental Diseases.” Journal of Abnormal Psychology 13 (40):199–214.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Spearman, Charles. 1909. “Review of C. S. Myers, Text-book of Experimental Psychology. Mind.” 18 (72):617–618.Google Scholar
Stout, George Frederick. 1896. Analytic Psychology, vol. 1. London: Swan Sonnenschein.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sullivan, Alice. 1921. “An Experimental Study of Kinaesthetic Imagery.” American Journal of Psychology 32 (1):54–80.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Thomas, Nigel J. T. 2010. “The Perky Experiment.” In Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/mental-imagery/perky-experiment.html (last accessed July 25, 2010).Google Scholar
Titchener, Edward B. 1895. “A Psychophysical Vocabulary.” American Journal of Psychology 7 (1):78–85.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Titchener, Edward B. 1904. “Organic Images.” Journal of Philosophy, Psychology and Scientific Methods 1 (2):36–40.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Titchener, Edward B. 1908. Lectures on the Elementary Psychology of Feeling and Attention. New York: MacMillan.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Titchener, Edward B. 1909a. A Text-book of Psychology. Part 1. New York: Macmillan.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Titchener, Edward B. 1909b. Experimental Psychology of the Thought-Processes. New York: MacMillan.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Titchener, Edward B. 1910a. “The Past Decade in Experimental Psychology.” American Journal of Psychology 21 (3):404–421.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Titchener, Edward B. 1910b. A Text-Book of Psychology. New York: Macmillan.Google Scholar
Titchener, Edward B. 1912. “Prolegomena to a Study of Introspection.” American Journal of Psychology 23 (3):427–448.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Titchener, Edward B. 1915. A Beginner's Psychology. New York: Macmillan.Google Scholar
Titchener, Edward B. [1899] 1916. An Outline of Psychology. New York: MacMillan.Google Scholar
Titchener, Edward B. 1929. Systematic Psychology: Prolegomena. New York: Macmillan.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Titchener, Edward B. and Hunter, Thomas. 1969. The Letters between Sir Thomas Hunter and E.B. Titchener, edited by Brown, Laurence B. and Fuchs, Alfred H.. Wellington: Department of Psychology, Victoria Univerisity.Google Scholar
Topics of the Times. 1907. “Torture for no Purpose,” New York Times, Jan. 1.Google Scholar
Urban, Wilbur M. 1901. “Review, Zur psychologischen Analyse der aesthetischen Einfühlung by Stephan Witasek.” Psychological Review 8 (4):432–435.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Vila, Anne C. 1998. Enlightenment and Pathology: Sensibility in the Literature and Medicine of Eighteenth Century France. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Vischer, Robert. [1873] 1994. “On the Optical Sense of Form.” In Empathy, Form and Space: Problems in German Aesthetics, 1873–1893, edited by Francis Mallgrave, Harry and Eleftherios, Ikonomou, 89–123. Santa Monica: Getty Center for the History of Art and the Humanities.Google Scholar
Volkelt, Johannes. 1876. Der Symbol-Begriff in der neuesten Aesthetik. Jena: Hermann Dufft.Google Scholar
Wade, Nicholas J. 2009. “The Search for a Sixth Sense: The Cases for Vestibular, Muscle, and Temperature Senses.” In The Sixth Sense Reader, edited by Howes, David, 55–85. Oxford: Berg.Google Scholar
Warren, Howard C. 1934. Dictionary of Psychology. Boston: Houghton Mifflin.Google Scholar
Washburn, Margaret Floy. 1916. Movement and Mental Imagery: Outlines of a Motor Theory of the Complexer Mental Processes. Boston: Houghton Mifflin.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Watson, John B. 1907. “Kinesthetic and Organic Sensations: Their Role in the Reactions of the White Rat to the Maze.” Psychological Review Monograph Supplements 8 (2):1–100.Google Scholar
Weld, Harry Porter. 1912. “An Experimental Study of Musical Enjoyment.” American Journal of Psychology 23 (2):245–308.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wispé, Lauren. 1987. “History of the Concept of Empathy.” In Empathy and Its Development, edited by Eisenberg, Nancy and Strayer, Janet, 17–37. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Wodehouse, Helen. 1910. “The Apprehension of Feeling.” Mind, New Series 19 (76):523–532.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wölfflin, Heinrich. [1886] 2007. Prolegomena zu einer Psychologie der Architektur, 71–106. Reprinted in Friedrich, Thomas and Gleiter, Jörg, eds. 2007. Einfühlung und phänomenologische Reduktion: Grundlagentexte zu Architektur, Design und Kunst. Berlin: Lit Verlag.Google Scholar
Woodworth, Robert S. 1906. “Imageless Thought.” Journal of Philosophy, Psychology and Scientific Methods 3 (26):701–708.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wundt, Wilhelm. 1901, Lectures on Human and Animal Psychology. Translated by Creighton, James E. and Titchener, Edward B.. London: Swan Sonnenschein.Google Scholar
Wundt, Wilhelm. 1904. Principles of Physiological Psychology, vol. 1. Translated by Titchener, Edward B.. London. Swan Sonnenschein.Google Scholar
Wundt, Wilhelm. 1908. Völkerpsychologie, III: Die Kunst. Leipzig: Engelmann.Google Scholar
Zigler, Michael. 1920. “An Experimental Study of Visual Form.” American Journal of Psychology 31 (3):273–300.CrossRefGoogle Scholar