Bhutan’s gross national happiness & sustainable development approach

Development in Bhutan continues to be guided by the philosophy of Gross National Happiness or GNH: a pioneering vision that aims to improve the happiness and well-being of its people. As early as the 1970s, the Fourth King proclaimed that citizens’ happiness was more essential than merely economic growth (Ura & Galay, Reference Ura and Galay2004). Since then, GNH has strived for development characterised as holistic, balanced, collective, sustainable and equitable (Royal Government of Bhutan [RGoB], 2017). The pursuit of GNH above GDP as a measure of progress illustrates Bhutan’s commitment to avoiding the pitfalls of blindly pursued economic growth. Bhutan’s slow start in the development process enabled learning from other nations’ experiences and adopting GNH as an alternative model for progress. In pursuing GNH, development efforts are centred around not only fulfilling the individual’s material needs but also addressing emotional and spiritual needs (Rinzin, Reference Rinzin2006).

To create an enabling environment for maximising GNH, it is built on four pillars (Centre for Bhutan Studies [CBS] & GNH Research, 2016):

• Sustainable and equitable socio-economic development,

• Conservation of the Environment,

• Preservation and promotion of culture and

• Good governance.

These pillars aspire to foster social harmony, unity and stability and create a just and compassionate society by ensuring equity among individuals, communities and regions (NEC, 2012b). Environmental sustainability is pursued without compromising biological productivity and biodiversity. Cultural preservation and promotion encourage respect for cultural heritage, preserve emotional and spiritual values that cultivate happiness and protect citizens from undesirable development consequences. Good governance strengthens institutions and governance systems, broadening prospects for citizens’ participation and responsive development choices. To assess citizens’ wellbeing across economic, social, emotional and environmental dimensions, the four pillars of Gross National Happiness (GNH) are operationalised into nine domains: (1) psychological wellbeing, (2) health, (3) education, (4) time use, (5) cultural diversity and resilience, (6) governance, (7) community vitality, (8) ecological diversity and resilience and (9) living standards (CBS & GNH Research, 2016). These domains reflect the interdependent nature of life and the holistic approach necessary to advance GNH (Sherab, Reference Sherab2013). Within these domains, 33 indicators and 124 variables have been developed to measure the well-being of the population. The GNH Index aims to “orient the people and the nation towards happiness, primarily by improving the conditions of not-yet-happy people” (Ura et al., Reference Ura, Alkire and Zangmo2012, p. 1).

Over the past five decades, all of Bhutan’s development aspirations have remained steadily guided by this unique ideology (GNHC, 2013). A GNH policy screening tool has been instituted since 2008 to screen all policies to ensure that they are consistent with GNH principles under the auspices of a Commission Office, a central planning institution for policy (RGoB, 2017). The preservation of the environment, the preservation of traditions and culture, and the smooth transition to democracy are some of the humble successes achieved in terms of GNH-pursued development (Tobgay, Reference Tobgay2015). While sustainability is increasingly a concern for citizens, nations and the world, GNH remains an important alternative to GDP as a measure of individual and national well-being (Allison, Reference Allison, Fogel, Fredericks and Spellerberg2012, p. 183). As Allison argues, GNH can help shift:

consciousness away from the continual pursuit of more, bigger and better — goals that are now well-known to be unsustainable and highly destructive to the surrounding environment — and toward goals that can satisfy human cravings for meaning, connection, value and worth. (p. 183)

Although Bhutan is one of the least developed countries, it continues to maintain over 70% of its land area under forest cover, of which more than 50% of the total land area is protected as nature reserves, biological corridors, national parks and wildlife sanctuaries (GNHC, 2017; NEC, 2017). Bhutan was declared one of the ten most important biodiversity “hotspots” in the world (Planning Commission, 1999). Similarly, the constitution mandates that “a minimum of sixty percent of Bhutan’s total land shall be maintained under forest cover for all time” (Article 5, p. 12). Bhutan stands out as one of the world’s few carbon-negative countries (Climate Council, 2017; GNHC, 2017; Munawar, Reference Munawar2016) and during several United Nations Conferences of the Parties (e.g., COP 15 in 2009 and COP 21 in 2015), pledged to remain a carbon-neutral country. It is estimated that Bhutan emits around 1.6 million tonnes of carbon each year, while its forests, which serve as a carbon sink, absorb almost 6.3 million tonnes (GNHC, 2017). Nature and the environment have also been very essential in the daily religious and cultural aspects of Bhutanese life. The foundation of Bhutanese culture is deeply rooted in traditional Buddhist beliefs and values, respect for all living things and harmonious coexistence between human beings and Mother Nature (Allison, Reference Allison2004). The environment offers enormous value in everyday life and happiness since human health and aesthetic experiences depend on the quality of the physical environment (Thinley, Reference Thinley2005). As highlighted earlier, sustainable development principles are deeply rooted in the concept of GNH, which for decades has helped promote environmental sustainability, well-being and happiness through an equitable and balanced economic development approach. Presently, efforts are underway to strengthen policy tools and institutional practices at all levels to make better plans and implement sustainable development strategies through GNH ideologies (NEC, 2012b). A great deal of effort has also been made to incorporate GNH principles and values into teaching and learning in the education sector in Bhutan (Schuelka & Maxwell, Reference Schuelka and Maxwell2016; Sherab, Reference Sherab2013).

To address climate challenges, education in Bhutan remains a vital sector for empowering younger generations to understand and respond to the impacts of a changing climate. Education plays a key role in shaping behaviours and attitudes that support both adaptation and mitigation efforts. The concept of GNH can continue to serve as a framework for critically analysing how climate change threatens national goals and the vision of the education sector. Moreover, it is important to evaluate how climate change may affect the social, emotional and psychological well-being of citizens, especially school children. There is also an opportunity to create platforms where school communities can actively contribute to this vision, particularly in advancing sustainable and equitable socio-economic development and environmental conservation, which are core pillars of GNH. Equally essential is the exploration of both individual and collective capacities — dispositions, knowledge and resources (Thapa, Reference Thapa2024a) — and how these are utilised by individuals and institutions to generate effective climate action on the ground.

Education in Bhutan

Bhutan has made a significant stride in education, nearing universal primary enrolment at 95% and secondary enrolment at 85% in 2014 (Ministry of Education [MoE], 2014). The country has achieved a commendable literacy rate of 71.4% (NSB, 2018). Western-style education started only in the 1960s with the launch of the country’s first national developmental plan (Thapa, Reference Thapa2024b). Since then, the education system has evolved to meet educational demands and generate human resources needed for the country’s socio-economic development. Modern education has been crucial in diversifying economies and improving health, literacy and social–cultural life (Gyamtso, Reference Gyamtso2020; Schuelka & Maxwell, Reference Schuelka and Maxwell2016).

Aligned with Bhutan’s unique philosophy of GNH, educational policies are crafted with the vision of nurturing an enlightened society rooted in the nation’s core values of Tha-Dam-Tshig Ley Gyu-Drey (MoE, 2018). This ethos embodies a “genuine commitment to others and the truth of causality or interdependence” (Schuelka & Maxwell, Reference Schuelka and Maxwell2016, p. vii). The sector aspires to establish a robust and comprehensive system that pursues the principles of GNH, preserves the nation’s rich cultural and spiritual heritage and cultivates a youthful populace equipped to meet both national imperatives and global challenges (MoE, 2018). This will be critical for the persistent pursuit of addressing sustainability issues such as climate change.

A strategic blueprint for Bhutanese schools has recently emphasised the paramount importance of health, well-being and safety for all stakeholders within the school sector (MoE, 2014). This framework mandates not only the provision of adequate infrastructure, including emergency care facilities, but also adherence to stringent safety standards. Furthermore, it underscores the significance of environmental stewardship, with guidelines advocating for eco-friendly construction practices, regular maintenance and consideration of climatic conditions and green technologies in infrastructure planning. In addition, schools are tasked with enforcing policies and safety protocols and fostering strong community linkages to ensure a conducive learning environment.

Despite substantial progress, the Bhutanese education sector grapples with multifaceted challenges, the most critical being climate change, which not only poses a formidable obstacle to achieving educational goals but also threatens to undo the gains made thus far. Addressing this concern requires a concerted effort to integrate sustainable development and climate change education into the national curriculum. While current evidence of specific policies in these domains remains limited, environmental education (EE) serves as a platform for imparting knowledge, skills and values essential for sustainable development (Royal Council on Education [REC], 2012, 2018).

Bhutan’s educational reform initiatives, epitomised by the “Educating for Gross National Happiness” campaign launched in 2009, underscore the integration of GNH principles into the curriculum (Drukpa & Brien, Reference Drukpa and Brien2013; Miller, Reference Miller2013; Sherab, Reference Sherab2013). Embracing the concept of “green schools,” educators have endeavoured to instill environmental consciousness and stewardship among students through a holistic approach encompassing various dimensions such as intellectual, social and moral greenery (Drukpa & Brien, Reference Drukpa and Brien2013; Sherab, Reference Sherab2013). This commitment is manifested in the proliferation of eco-friendly practices within schools, including waste recycling initiatives, organic farming endeavours and nature conservation efforts (Dema, Reference Dema2018).

Moreover, collaborative endeavours involving government agencies, NGOs and civil society organisations aim to reinforce environmental education and advocacy initiatives across the country. Noteworthy initiatives include the establishment of nature clubs in schools, civic engagement programmes on waste management and agricultural and forestry education initiatives (NEC, 2016; RSPN, 2017). The Himalayan Environmental Rhythms Observation and Evaluation System (HEROES) project exemplifies Bhutan’s proactive stance towards climate action, empowering schools and communities to monitor climate change and its ecological ramifications (UWICER, 2018).

In brief, Bhutan’s educational trajectory underscores a steadfast commitment to holistic development grounded in the ethos of GNH. However, the looming spectre of climate change necessitates proactive measures to integrate sustainability education into the curriculum and foster a generation of environmentally conscious citizens equipped to navigate the challenges of the 21st century.

Climate change and the education sector in Bhutan

Bhutan is beginning to face the escalating threats from climate change on its educational provisions, making schools and school children increasingly vulnerable (Thapa et al., Reference Thapa, Gough and Cooper2024a; Department of Disaster Management [DDM], 2017). Past extreme weather incidents have caused substantial damage to school facilities and infrastructure. For instance, a severe windstorm in 2011 destroyed approximately 57 educational centres worth Nu. 50.18 million, and in 2009, earthquakes damaged about 117 schools, amounting to Nu. 593.6 million in losses (DDM, 2013, 2017). Similarly, in 2015, around 23 schools were damaged by windstorms (Dema, Reference Dema2015), and in 2016, 15 schools across three districts had to close temporarily due to extreme flooding (Bhutan Broadcasting Service [BBS], 2016). The threat of glacial lake outburst floods, exacerbated by rising temperatures, also looms large, placing school communities and children at significant risk.

Evidence suggests that schools and children in Bhutan experienced multiple climate change impacts and shocks, affecting health, well-being, education and socio-cultural life. In a recent study by Thapa et al. (Reference Thapa, Gough and Cooper2024a), school leaders and teachers perceived a rising incidence and intensity of climate hazards affecting schools, including floods, windstorms, landslides, torrential rain and lightning. The vulnerability of schools to these risks was influenced by factors such as their physical location, the age and design of school infrastructures, inadequate facilities and socio-economic circumstances. Most schools in Bhutan are situated in rural areas, requiring students to walk long distances to attend (Palden, Reference Palden2019), exposing them to various hazards. Weather events and disasters often led to school closures, disrupting the education of day scholars. Furthermore, school principals and teachers have noted the added challenges of wildlife threats due to disturbances in their habitat, especially in rural schools (Thapa et al., Reference Thapa, Gough and Cooper2024a).

The effects of climate change on children’s psychological well-being in Bhutan are not widely studied. Global research, however, suggests that exposure to natural hazards can lead to physical damage and post-traumatic stress (Kousky, Reference Kousky2016). Thapa et al. (Reference Thapa, Gough and Cooper2024a) reported the evidence of trauma and emotional disturbance among Bhutanese children exposed to extreme weather events and disasters. The 2011 earthquake in Bhutan also resulted in significant trauma for children (Royal Government of Bhutan, United Nations, & GFDRR, 2011). During disasters, displacement often left families and children without access to essential services such as food, shelter, healthcare and sanitation.

The World Health Organization (WHO) predicts that health risks, including vector-borne and waterborne diseases, will rise in Bhutan due to climate change (WHO, 2024). Diseases like dengue, previously rare, have become more common, driven by climatic changes (Tsheten et al., Reference Tsheten, Clements, Gray, Wangchuk and Wangdi2020, Reference Tsheten, Mclure, Clements, Gray, Wangdi, Wangchuk and Wangdi2021). Schools have reported an increase in climate-associated diseases among students, such as dengue fever and chilblains (Thapa et al., Reference Thapa, Gough and Cooper2024a). Waterborne diseases, already responsible for 10–15% of morbidity, are likely to increase due to flooding and water source contamination (WHO, 2024). Children are particularly vulnerable to these health risks, with studies suggesting that despite resource limitations, health agencies must prepare to address the impacts of climate change (Ebi & del Barrio, Reference Ebi and del Barrio2017).

Rising temperatures in Bhutan have had further implications for school children, affecting their learning, engagement and outcomes (Thapa et al., Reference Thapa, Gough and Cooper2024a). Extreme temperatures and weather patterns have limited outdoor activities and increased the risk of heat-related illnesses. Water shortages, exacerbated by climate change, also posed significant health risks for children, particularly those in boarding schools. Climate change also posed financial implications for schools in terms of costs for repairing damaged infrastructure. Additionally, it affected their school’s daily routines during extreme weather events.

The DDM has initiated some disaster resilience programmes focused on the safety of children and schools, but the capacity of school staff to manage disasters remains minimal (DDM, 2017). Teacher shortages and retention issues could further complicate disaster preparedness (Dolkar, Reference Dolkar2022; Pem, Reference Pem2021; Wangchuk & Dorji, Reference Wangchuk and Dorji2020). The integration of climate change impacts into educational planning and investment is limited, with systematic data management and evaluation mechanisms lacking (UNDRR, 2020). As the region’s warming is projected to exceed the global average, the consequences for Bhutan’s schooling system could be severe, necessitating urgent action to build climate-resilient schools.

In Bhutan, formal climate change adaptation and mitigation strategies have yet to be fully implemented in the education sector (Thapa et al., Reference Thapa, Gough and Cooper2024b). Schools lack school-level policies and action plans to address climate change issues comprehensively. While disaster management plans exist, they are primarily focused on earthquakes, with climate change-related hazards yet to be integrated. The organisational safety management system is weak, and schools are inadequately equipped with disaster risk reduction infrastructure and resources (Thapa et al., Reference Thapa, Gough and Cooper2024a).

It becomes apparent that climate-induced impacts are now observed in the school sector in Bhutan, affecting not just the learners but the entire school system, including educational amenities. Structures for adaptation and mitigation to climate change impacts and risks are yet to be further explored and examined, if it has been established as a field of practice. Thapa et al. (Reference Thapa, Gough and Cooper2024b) report that opportunities to engage in action were constrained by education and economic capital, limited impacts and risk assessment, policy and institutional structures and technical and human capacities. The slow integration of climate change considerations into local development processes further impeded efforts to build climate-resilient schools. Urgent action is needed to enhance the education system’s preparedness and resilience in the face of changing climatic conditions.

School climate mitigation action and climate change education (CCE)

Examples from across the world suggest that the school sector has significant potential to contribute to reducing carbon footprints (Gamarra et al., Reference Gamarra, Istrate, Herrera, Lago, Lizana and Lechón2018; Hanus et al., Reference Hanus, Wong-Parodi, Vaishnav, Darghouth and Azevedo2019; Odell et al., Reference Odell, Rauland and Murcia2020). In Bhutan, however, economic constraints and pressing educational challenges limit the education sector’s policies, planning, financing and priority targets for large-scale mitigation measures. Despite these constraints, schools have undertaken notable teacher and student-led initiatives, such as environmental advocacy, afforestation and reforestation, reducing firewood use, recycling, rainwater harvesting, educational activities (essays, quizzes, exhibitions, dramas), observing international days, carpooling, forming student clubs, conserving water and biodiversity, promoting school-based agriculture, clean-ups, adopting eco-friendly practices, improving facilities and creating safe school zones (Thapa et al., Reference Thapa, Gough and Cooper2024a). These efforts are strongly driven by social capital, Bhutan’s Buddhist values of compassion for all sentient beings and respect for nature and a community-oriented culture.

Although these activities may seem small relative to the scale of climate impacts, they are important for fostering climate literacy, preparing young generations to adapt and empowering them to pursue sustainable lifestyles (Leicht et al., Reference Leicht, Heiss and Byun2018; Stevenson et al., Reference Stevenson, Nicholls and Whitehouse2017). However, as highlighted above, most initiatives have focused on environmental conservation, while large-scale mitigation measures such as energy-efficient infrastructure remain largely unimplemented. Similarly, despite strong traditions of community service, schools’ engagement in broader climate change programmes and partnerships is still limited (Thapa et al., Reference Thapa, Gough and Cooper2024b).

Efforts to advance sustainable development education have been initiated; however, formal integration into curricula and teaching programmes remains inadequate. For instance, the inclusion of CCE and disaster risk reduction (DRR) in the curriculum is currently minimal (Thapa et al., Reference Thapa, Gough and Cooper2024b). Environmental Science, which provides some in-depth climate change content, is offered only as an optional subject in upper secondary classes and is taken by relatively few students. Educators strongly support the integration of CCE and DRR into the curriculum, though opinions differ on the most suitable approaches and grade levels for implementation. Studies reveal that teachers prefer action-oriented teaching over traditional exam-focused methods (Thapa et al., Reference Thapa, Gough and Cooper2024a). Nevertheless, the introduction of climate change content into the Environmental Science curriculum and Bhutan’s participation in PISA (BCSEA, 2019) represent promising steps toward improving learning standards and preparing future-ready students.

For schools to contribute meaningfully to climate mitigation, viable policy instruments supported by economic and cultural capital are essential. Schools face challenges, including limited funding, rigid curricula, teacher and student readiness, low access to cultural capital, minimal institutional involvement in climate research and innovation and limited parental engagement. Addressing these challenges through well-designed, systemic strategies, linking education, finance and cross-sectoral cooperation, will be critical. Given Bhutan’s socio-economic context, such efforts will likely depend on government and sectoral strategic priorities.

Prospects for further exploration

While research on the school sector’s responses to climate change, CCE and sustainable development pursuits is emerging, more concerted efforts are needed. The analysis of the existing evidence suggests that comprehensive studies involving all key stakeholders, which provide deeper insights into how climate change will impact sectors such as education and how these impacts must be addressed both within schools and across the sector, are limited. Additionally, assessments for schools in remote and disadvantaged regions are imminent. There are also minimal explorations on integrating the needs of children with special needs into existing disaster management plans and climate adaptation strategies. Similarly, the integration of CCE and DRR teachings within school systems has not been fully examined.

Implementing a systematic and scientific climate change risk assessment framework remains imperative to comprehensively evaluate the exposure, vulnerability, hazards and risks faced by school sectors. Equally, future explorations can delve independently into each aspect of climate change impact, including curriculum development, psychological well-being, behaviour and disaster management. Such an approach can uncover specific challenges and opportunities, enabling tailored interventions to mitigate negative consequences. For instance, by studying psychological well-being, researchers can assess the emotional effect of climate change on students and develop strategies to support their mental health effectively. Furthermore, employing diverse research designs will provide deeper insights into the readiness and responses of schools to climate-induced threats. Understanding schools’ vulnerabilities and exposure to climate-related hazards can offer a comprehensive view of their preparedness and response capabilities. This knowledge is crucial for informing targeted strategies and policies aimed at enhancing resilience within the education sector. Addressing climate change within Bhutan’s education sector requires concerted efforts through comprehensive research, strategic planning and tailored interventions to safeguard educational progress and the well-being of all students.