If Byzantinists were asked to name a Byzantine personage familiar to non-academics, they would probably think of Theodora or Justinian. Few would immediately think of Michael Psellos. Yet Psellos has been the subject of vast and surprising interest outside the academy. The alternative identity of Psellos has been constructed and shaped by authors associated with Hermeticism, occultism, modern Templars, and conspiracy theories – what I call modern underground circles. Among these groups, Psellos is portrayed as the guardian of the original text of the Corpus Hermeticum, the secret founder of the Knights Templar, the transmitter of ancient Eastern esoteric and Hermetic knowledge to the Western world, instigator of the Great Schism and the Latin conquest of Constantinople in 1204, as well as a mythical figure in the history of contemporary secret organizations that are supposedly puppeteers of the global order. By analysing various printed and digital publications from this underground world, this article contributes to the growing field of Byzantine reception studies.Footnote 1 It will show how these authors, writing in their alternative realities, dramatically reconstruct Psellos’ philosophical and intellectual pursuits in Hermeticism and Neoplatonism, producing an image of his legacy in stark contrast with modern scholarly interpretations. Underground treatments of Psellos do not simply diverge from modern academic interpretations but depict a completely distinct, apocryphal personality. These groups have developed an alternative reality of Psellos’ legacy in our modern world where he thrives within unconventional narratives and speculative frameworks.
Michael Psellos and the Corpus Hermeticum: the guardian of occult knowledge
Most modern underground narratives about Michael Psellos revolve around a common theme: Psellos supposedly possessed Hermetic and occult knowledge. This knowledge, it is often said, came from the Corpus Hermeticum, which he had acquired from the Sabians, an esoteric and occult community that lived in Harran, in present-day south-eastern Turkey.Footnote 2 Despite the absence of historical evidence, the connection of Psellos, the Corpus Hermeticum, and the Sabians is frequently found in the work of underground writers. For example, Donald Frew, an American Wiccan and a National Interfaith Representative of Covenant of the Goddess (CoG), one of the largest Wicca solidarity groups in the world, in a peer-reviewed article on the roots of Hermeticism, claimed that Psellos received an annotated copy of the Hermetica from a scholar from Harran.Footnote 3 Lynn Picknett, a popular author who has written extensively on conspiracy theories, religion, and occultism, has also shown interest in Psellos. In one of her books on occultism, she has argued that the disappearance of the Sabians from Baghdad and Harran in the eleventh century and the resurgence of interest in Hermeticism in the Byzantine Empire happened simultaneously, wondering whether this was merely a coincidence.Footnote 4 She describes Psellos as a Platonic philosopher and ‘the first Westerner’ to write about the Hermetica in half a millennium. Picknett highlights the speculations of ‘specialists’ who have suggested that Sabians fleeing persecution might have transferred this Hermetic knowledge to Constantinople and Psellos.Footnote 5 Tobias Churton, a British researcher of Western esotericism, Gnosticism, and esoteric movements, has suggested, in his Gnostic Philosophy, that the Sabians, who had supplied medieval magi with literary and technical knowledge, might have brought the Corpus Hermeticum to Constantinople, and has proposed that Psellos’ compilation was no more than a ‘coincidence’.Footnote 6 Ross King’s historical novel Ex Libris presents the story of Psellos receiving a damaged manuscript in Syriac, the language of the Sabians, as a historical fact incorporated to bolster the novel’s realism.Footnote 7 The claim that Psellos was a preserver and reviver of ancient Hermetic knowledge has some historical credibility, but the alternative reception increasingly blurs the reality.
Psellos assumed many identities in the course of his life – historian, bureaucrat, landowner, philosopher, teacher, and scholar.Footnote 8 He tried his hand at a variety of genres, ranging from history and chronicles to philosophical commentaries, poetry, religious treatises, and panegyrical orations. His intellectual pursuits included grammar, rhetoric, astronomy, medicine, mathematics, law, and music.Footnote 9 Psellos also had a particular interest in Neoplatonism, Hermeticism, and occultism. From his Chronographia we learn, for example, that as a student Psellos extensively studied astronomy and the works of Neoplatonic philosophers such as Proclus, Plotinus, Porphyry, and Iamblichus.Footnote 10 Psellos was a teacher and discussed Neoplatonic philosophy in essays with many references to ancient Neoplatonic and Hermetic authors.Footnote 11 His philosophical approach was unmistakably Neoplatonic, albeit seamlessly integrated into Christian theology. He wrote an extensive commentary on the Chaldean Oracles, Hermetic Neoplatonic texts from Late Antiquity, and composed a dialogue On the Operation of Demons, which explores the forms, nature, and deeds of demons, enriched with references to Hermes Trismegistus, Julius Africanus, and Proclus.Footnote 12 On Demons enjoyed great popularity with Renaissance scholars such as Marsilio Ficino and Francesco Filelfo and Reformation theologians such as Girolamo Zanchi.Footnote 13
With his knowledge of occult sciences, especially divination, alchemy, and magic, Psellos was a trusted source of information among the Byzantine elite. He, for instance, wrote a letter to the patriarch Michael Keroularios detailing the practices of gold making.Footnote 14 In the treatise Concerning the Power of Stones, he explained the alchemical powers of gems and stones.Footnote 15 However, in many instances, Psellos portrayed himself as an expert in astrology, divination, and magic who refrained from practising them.Footnote 16 As a growing body of scholars acknowledge, Psellos undoubtedly played a role in the revival and dissemination of Hermetic, Neoplatonic, and occult knowledge in eleventh-century Byzantium.Footnote 17 However, references to academic scholarship are almost entirely absent in the writings of the underground authors I refer to here. There is virtually no evidence that these authors have studied Psellos’ work in any depth. Their understanding of the occult Psellos differs markedly from contemporary academics. Nonetheless, modern underground circles have associated Psellos’ intellectual profile with a broader ‘occult’ identity and the mysterious side of the Corpus Hermeticum more specifically.
The Corpus Hermeticum is a collection of Greek philosophical and religious writings traditionally attributed to the school of Hermes Trismegistus, a legendary figure who combined aspects of the Greek god Hermes and the Egyptian god Thoth.Footnote 18 These texts, most of which date to the first to fourth centuries CE, are heavily influenced by earlier Egyptian and Greek philosophical and religious traditions, blending features of Hellenistic philosophy with Egyptian mysticism. Two manuscripts containing these treatises include scholia that led early twentieth-century scholars to consider the possibility that Psellos had possessed these texts, if not the manuscripts themselves, at some point in his life.Footnote 19 These manuscripts, associated with Psellos, were foundational for European editions of the Corpus Hermeticum from the Renaissance onwards, serving as a basis for the modern editions of the Corpus Hermeticum by Walter Scott and A. D. Nock.Footnote 20 The corpus became popular, especially among occultists, intellectuals, and philosophers, from the Renaissance onwards through various editions and translations, but it was not until the modern English translation by Walter Scott in the early twentieth century that it reached a wider (modern underground) public.
In modern underground circles, among Western pagans, Christian esoterics, and occultists, texts attributed to the ancient Hermetic tradition play a crucial role in the study of occult theory and the practice of magic. Ancient texts covering subjects such as astrology, magic, alchemy, and other occult arts and sciences are particularly popular. Yet the Corpus Hermeticum is not directly concerned with astrology or magic and does not discuss alchemy at all.Footnote 21 These treatises focus more on philosophical issues including the origins of knowledge and the moral properties of the divine in the Greco-Egyptian Hermetic philosophical tradition.Footnote 22 They are perhaps the least esoteric and occult of all the texts attributed to the Hermetic tradition, even among those that only discuss theoretical and philosophical subjects.Footnote 23 They bear no resemblance to the other occult and magical texts of the Hermetic tradition, such as the Greek Magical Papyri compiled for the purpose of practising magic.Footnote 24
Byzantine knowledge of the Greek Hermetic texts that formed the Corpus Hermeticum did not originate from the Sabians, as underground sources assert. The Byzantines had access to texts associated with the Hermetic tradition long before this imaginary connection. Ancient Greek Hermetic and occult texts available to literati such as Psellos were even richer than the treatises that would later form the Corpus Hermeticum. If Psellos played any historical role in the compilation of the texts that would later form the Corpus Hermeticum, the texts were most likely compiled from a broader body of knowledge available at the time, which placed significant emphasis on occultism.Footnote 25 Such a compilation, if it existed, was likely a product of Psellos’ scholarly engagement with earlier Greco-Egyptian philosophical traditions. One thing we can say with certainty: Psellos was not the exotic, occultist, mysterious Byzantine figure that modern underground circles imagine. He was neither the mythical individual who protected and spread Hermetic, occult secret knowledge, nor did he receive an occult book from an ‘oriental’ and ‘mysterious’ group called the Sabians.
This fictitious relationship between the Corpus Hermeticum and Psellos, as well as the Sabian connection popular in modern underground circles, distorts remarks made by Walter Scott. In the introduction to his English translation, Scott speculated that the disappearance of the Sabians from Baghdad in 1050 coincided with Psellos’ compilation of the Hermetic texts in Constantinople. He suggested that a Sabian Neoplatonist from Baghdad might have transported the Corpus Hermeticum to Constantinople, catalysing the Platonic revival in which Psellos played a prominent part.Footnote 26 Although Scott did not confidently assert that a Sabian fleeing Harran brought the book directly to Psellos, modern underground authors have accepted and disseminated this tenuous claim as historical fact.Footnote 27 There is no historical evidence to support Scott’s speculations. None of the contemporary or near-contemporary Byzantine, Syriac, Arabic, or Islamic sources indicate any Sabian connection, including Psellos’ own writings. Recent scholarship has demonstrated that there is no substantial evidence that the Sabians possessed full knowledge of the Hermetic texts that would later be called the Corpus Hermeticum.Footnote 28 Therefore, we lack compelling evidence of an extant Arabic or any other Hermetica from the Harran region that Sabians could have brought to Constantinople and was later acquired by Psellos. Even if such an event did occur, the absence of any reference to the Hermetica’s Harranian origins is notable, particularly considering Psellos’ usual transparency as a writer and scholar who frequently discussed the sources of his knowledge and the influential relationships that shaped his career.
In modern underground circles, there is no interest in investigating the actual role of Psellos in the transmission of intellectual knowledge regarding Hermeticism and Neoplatonism from antiquity to the Byzantine period apart from their distorted interpretations of Walter Scott’s suggestion. Since Psellos’ name was already known in modern underground circles, primarily through this reference in the work of Scott, they reimagined him as a radically unfamiliar actor, transforming scholarly speculation into historical fact. For these authors, the complex tradition of preserving, disseminating, and compiling texts that would later form the Corpus Hermeticum – from antiquity to the Middle Ages – is either unknown or intentionally ignored. At the same time, they embraced this speculative connection between Psellos and the Sabians to construct an elaborate narrative. As an enigmatic figure in an oriental empire, Psellos was the ideal person to serve as a bridge between the Eastern and Western esoteric worlds.
Michael Psellos: the first Templar
Hermeticism plays a major role in nearly all modern underground publications addressing the historical Knights Templar, the modern Templar lodges, and the Christian esoteric societies that trace their origins to the medieval Templars. Philosophically and ideologically, their existence is deeply rooted in Hermetic teachings.Footnote 29 Within the mainstream narrative of these modern circles, the Templars were followers of Hermes Trismegistus and were immersed in his teachings and writings. The Templars are believed to have practised alchemy and other esoteric knowledge, which supposedly endowed them with magical and prophetic abilities, and even immortality.Footnote 30 According to this view, the Templars’ secret and occult knowledge had ‘non-Abrahamic’ and ‘pagan’ roots, originating in the East and deriving from the Hermetic tradition. In this narrative, Psellos is once again depicted as the bridge between the East and the West and is considered the one who introduced this secret Eastern knowledge to the founding figures of the Templars. Some writers even assert that Psellos ran his own secret esoteric organization prior to the official founding of the Templars. According to these claims, the origins of Templarism can be traced back to the interactions between Psellos’ secret organization and the Templar founders. In reality, the Knights Templar or, as they are known, the Knights of the Temple of Solomon of Jerusalem, were officially founded in 1129 at the Council of Troyes as a religious order of the Latin Church. The order was formed by knights such as Hugues de Payens and Godfrey of Saint-Omer, who had acted as guardians of pilgrimage groups to Jerusalem a decade before the Council. The order existed until 1312, when it was dissolved by the Catholic Church at the Council of Vienne in Dauphine.Footnote 31
Timothy Hogan, a past Master in various FreemasonFootnote 32 and RosicrucianFootnote 33 organizations and a lecturer on the Western Mystery School tradition, discusses Psellos in The Way of the Templar, which the blurb presents as a handbook on Templarism. In the first section of the book, entitled ‘Little known esoteric Templar history’, Hogan asserts that the Order of the Templars originated in Constantinople around 1096, springing from an earlier order called the Brothers of the East, which Psellos had established in 1057.Footnote 34 He traces the origins of Psellos’ secret organization to Pythagorean and Gnostic traditions on Mount Athos, arguing that Psellos later transported this organization to Constantinople.Footnote 35 After Psellos’ death, the leader of the organization, a person named Theoclete, a custodian of the Eastern Church and a secret Gnostic, adopted the name Melchizedek and assumed control of the secret organization. Hogan also argues that the Templar Order was officially founded with a meeting held in 1096 at the Church of Saints Sergius and Bacchus (today’s Küçük Ayasofya Camii) in Constantinople. In this narrative, Hugues de Payens and Godfrey of Saint-Omer, the founding members of the Knights Templar, are said to have met with Theoclete. Hogan suggests that after the official founding of the Knights Templar, they vowed to preserve the underlying doctrinal beliefs of both traditions, the Order of the Amus in the West and Psellos’ secret organization, the Brothers of the East, and used the Church of Saints Sergius and Bacchus as their operational base until their suppression in 1307.Footnote 36
A French blog dedicated to the Templars claims to offer a detailed history of the Knights Templar’s origins, including the role Psellos’ secret organization played in its formation.Footnote 37 In a blog post entitled ‘Histoire de l’Ordre Temple’, the origins of the Knights Templar are traced back to a (literal!) summit meeting on Mount Olympus in 1054. At this meeting, Psellos is said to have secretly met Gerard of Burgundy, the later Pope Nicholas II (1058–61), and Frederick of Lorraine, the later Pope Stephen IX (1057–8). Additionally, Psellos reportedly received a vow from a twelve-year-old Otho de Lagery, who would become Pope Urban II (1088–99). This meeting supposedly laid the groundwork for the Order of the Brotherhood of the East and Thebes, an organization that eventually evolved into the Knights Templar. The blog’s anonymous author also suggests that Psellos revived Neoplatonic philosophy, which was directly linked to one of the Order’s main goals – the establishment of a Republic of Europe and even a Universal Republic based on the principles of Atlantis – without explaining what these abstract terms mean or what kind of government and principles the order idealized. Like Hogan, the author of this piece asserts that the Knights Templar were established in a meeting in Constantinople in 1096. However, this time, instead of Theoclete, it was Psellos himself who supposedly met with the founders of the Templars. According to this account, the ambassador of Hassan Sabbah, the head of the Hashshashin, was also present, and the founder of the Templars, together with the ambassador, discovered the ‘secrets’ of Pythagoras and Eastern esoteric knowledge through Psellos. Obviously, the entire narrative, including Psellos’ role, is without historical foundation, not least because Psellos was already dead by 1096.Footnote 38
Another group that claims connections to Psellos’ secret organization and the Knights Templar are the Martinists, a well-known Christian esoteric movement in modern underground circles, which emerged in the mid-eighteenth century. The school was subsequently redesigned into an organized order in the nineteenth century by Gérard Encausse, who took the name Papus, a familiar figure in esoteric circles, and devoted himself to the study of Kabbalah, tarot, and occultism. Today, the Martinist tradition lacks a central organization, primarily operating through independent lodges worldwide.Footnote 39 One such lodge is the Ordre Martinistes Souverains (O∴M∴S∴), an independent Martinist Order operating in both the US and Europe. O∴M∴S∴ is one of the few Martinist lodges that publishes works on Martinism, Hermeticism, and occult sciences. While many of their publications are restricted to members, one work, The Complete Rose+Croix d’Orient, provides insights into the myths surrounding Psellos’ identity in the Martinist tradition. This handbook reveals that while numerous contemporary Martinist Rosicrucian documents trace the school’s lineage back to Psellos, two prominent figures within Martinism suggest alternative origins for the order.Footnote 40 Robert Ambelain, a notable Martinist of the twentieth century, traced Martinism’s roots back to Constantinople and the Eastern Brotherhood, attributing its ordination to Emperor Alexios I Komnenos in 1090.Footnote 41 Some Martinist orders follow the tradition of Demetrios Sémélas, who claimed to have discovered a secret manuscript of the Order of the Brothers of the East in a Greek monastery in the early twentieth century, and argue that the Order’s founders were neither Alexios I Komnenos nor Psellos but Photios, the patriarch of Constantinople, although there was no Byzantine patriarch named Photios in the eleventh century.Footnote 42
Despite these differing claims, all the cited Martinists suggest three possible ‘founders’ of the Knights Templars in eleventh-century Byzantium: the non-existent patriarch Photios, Emperor Alexios I Komnenos, and Michael Psellos. However, as we have seen, most underground sources on the origins of the Knights Templar and Hermeticism suggest that Psellos was the order’s true founder and a key figure in transmitting Hermetic and Neoplatonic knowledge to the Knights Templar. Underground circles believe that Psellos disseminated these ideas to the West either through the Corpus Hermeticum or through direct contact with Westerners and that he is the likeliest mythical candidate to have founded the Templars.
The relationship between the Templars and Psellos mirrors the narratives surrounding the Corpus Hermeticum and Psellos discussed previously. Each of these accounts portrays the Byzantine Empire and Psellos as mediators between the Eastern and Western worlds. Psellos’ mythical, constructed identity serves as a bridge between these two worlds. He is depicted as the transmitter of esoteric knowledge and Hermetic traditions, who introduced the spiritual and mystical traditions of Eastern Hermeticism to the West. This constructed identity not only enhanced the allure and mystery that surrounded Psellos but also cemented his role in conspiracy theories about secret organizations and world orders, particularly in the Turkish context.
Occult Byzantium: Michael Psellos in Turkish conspiracy theories
Various Turkish conspiracy theorists have echoed narratives about Psellos advanced by Western underground circles.Footnote 43 Psellos’ unique reception in Turkey warrants separate examination, as it represents a singular understanding of Psellos distinct from that of Western underground authors. Psellos’ prominence in the Turkish context is striking but not unexpected, as it is linked to shifting, politicized, and contested interpretations of Byzantine heritage and history by groups ranging from right-wing extremists and Islamists to certain nationalists and leftist factions in modern Turkey.Footnote 44
In Turkish popular culture, media, and politics, the history and memory of the Byzantine Empire is frequently weaponized, fetishized, and mystified. Terms such as ‘Bizans oyunları’ (Byzantine intrigues) and ‘Bizanslı olmak’ (being a Byzantine) have been integrated into political narratives to marginalize individuals and communities deemed ‘undesirable citizens’ or ‘enemies’. The Byzantine Empire is sometimes portrayed as part of a covert effort by Turkey’s external opponents to undermine and replace the Republic of Turkey.Footnote 45 These narratives are intertwined with the broader belief that Turkey has the potential to emerge as a dominant global power but is thwarted by foreign entities – often depicted as Europeans, Jews, and the United States. Moreover, these conspiracy theories propose that not only nations but also mysterious groups such as the Illuminati, Masonic Lodges, and secret Christian organizations, such as the Templars, obstruct Turkey’s global ascension. For example, the Turkish journalist Kemal Özer argued in an article for the ultra-Islamist daily Yeni Şafak (02.21.2020) that Masonic lodges had planned all the coups in Turkey. He claimed that these lodges executed Sultans Abdülaziz and Abdülhamid II, carved up the Ottoman Empire, and installed Masonic heads of state in every nation founded after the collapse of the Ottoman Empire. He also argued that the Masons secretly poisoned Mustafa Kemal Atatürk, the founder of the modern Turkish Republic, poisoned and killed Turgut Özal, the eighth President of Turkey, ousted the ultra-Islamist Prime Minister Necmettin Erbakan, and orchestrated the helicopter crash that killed the ultra-nationalist and Islamist politician Muhsin Yazıcıoğlu.Footnote 46
Psellos’ modern underground identity, as discussed in the first two parts of this article, particularly in relation to occultism and the origins of the Knights Templar, has captured the interest of conspiracy theorists in Turkey. These authors have incorporated the conspiracies around Psellos into broader narratives about the surreptitious inner workings of esoteric and occult organizations, which, working against Turkey’s well-being, secretly control the global order. In a blog post written in Turkish and entitled ‘Bilinmeyen İsviçre’ (Occult Switzerland), an anonymous author claims that the Hermetic teachings of Psellos – a priest, imperial advisor, alchemist, and philosopher – were pivotal in founding the Doğu Biraderleri Birliği (Eastern Brotherhood Unity). According to the author, this secret organization significantly influenced the Templars and was closely linked to their secret goals. The article asserts that Switzerland has been exporting mercenaries since the Middle Ages – either as Templars or as regular soldiers – to Europe and the Americas. These Swiss soldiers/Templars fought in European armies during the Middle Ages and played a significant role in the French and American Revolutions. Furthermore, the author connects the Templars/Swiss mercenaries to groups such as the Ku Klux Klan and the German Nazi Party, claiming that these organizations are controlled by the same entities, whose roots trace back to the Templars and eventually Switzerland. The author even contends that modern institutions like CERN in Switzerland serve these secret ‘pagan’ Templar communities. According to the author, Switzerland is the home of modern Templars who operate covertly, with Psellos as the mythical founder of this shadowy organization.Footnote 47
In an article entitled ‘Tapınak Şövalyeleri’ (Knights Templar) published on Academia.edu, Onur Akın, a self-identified expert on cosmic-esoteric intelligence and frequent commentator on Turkish conspiracy theories, asserts that the Templars swore allegiance to the Patriarch of Constantinople during the Crusades before proceeding to Jerusalem. Akın suggests that the real purpose of their journey was to meet with Psellos, a religious figure renowned for his knowledge of the occult. Psellos, the author further attests, maintained a secret chamber in the Hagia Sophia, where he studied the Hermetic mysteries. In their quest to uncover the secrets of Hermeticism, Akın posits, the Knights Templar sought to acquire the manuscripts Psellos procured from Harran. He asserts that the Knights Templar, through more recent organizations like the Illuminati, continue to influence global political and financial systems, orchestrating invasions and overthrowing governments. Akın concludes his article by asserting that the origins of these medieval and modern occult organizations can ultimately be traced back to Constantinople/Istanbul.Footnote 48
Akın and the anonymous blogger’s narratives exhibit similar characteristics: a lack of coherence and abrupt shifts in themes, as well as a common portrayal of Psellos. In these renderings, Psellos is depicted as a pivotal, mythical figure in a global order governed by clandestine organizations. Although these are blog posts with limited audiences, they illustrate Psellos’ prominence among Turkish conspiracy theorists, especially within their broader narratives about the Knights Templar and contemporary secret backroom organizations. Both authors draw heavily on the works of prominent Turkish authors and researchers in esotericism and conspiracy theories, such as Aytunç Altındal (1945–2013) and Baran Aydın (currently active).
Altındal was a prominent Turkish author, conspiracy theorist, and journalist known for his extensive work on esotericism, religion, and secret organizations such as the Illuminati and the Knights Templar. He garnered significant attention in Turkey, authored numerous bestsellers, and appeared on various television programmes, where he often portrayed global politics as manipulated by Christian-Masonic secret societies. Throughout his career, Altındal was a role model and source of inspiration for many Turkish conspiracy theorists, enthusiastically integrating Byzantine themes into his works.Footnote 49 In his most famous work, Hangi İsa, Tyanalı Apollonius (Which Jesus, Apollonius of Tyana), Altındal argues that Jesus Christ was actually the philosopher Apollonius of Tyana and that the concept of Christ as God is a later, false construct of the Church.Footnote 50 This idea, he asserts, originated with the First Council of Nicaea in 325 CE and was subsequently endorsed by the Orthodox and Catholic Churches. Altındal characterizes the era following 325 CE as a ‘period of conspiracies’ in Christianity, orchestrated by the Church to alter the true identity of Christ.Footnote 51 He contends that the Church’s portrayal of Jesus Christ is false and that several esoteric Christian communities – both historical and contemporary, such as the Bogomils, Rosicrucians, Freemasons, and Illuminati – were aware of this fact and opposed the assertions of the papacy and the Orthodox Church.Footnote 52
For Altındal, Psellos’ translation of the original Corpus Hermeticum represented a significant challenge to the Church’s ‘censorship’ policy of the true identity of Jesus Christ.Footnote 53 Psellos, a Platonic philosopher and bureaucrat, supposedly founded a secret organization within the Hagia Sophia alongside other philosophers. This secret circle, led by Psellos, was dedicated to the study, translation, and discussion of ancient texts that contradicted Church teachings. Over time, Psellos exerted considerable influence in Constantinople, attracting individuals with unconventional ideas and incorporating these ‘secret doctrines’ into ecclesiastical order.Footnote 54 His most notable achievement was translating the Corpus Hermeticum, which he obtained from the Sabians of Harran in 1050, from Syriac into Greek.Footnote 55 According to Altındal, Psellos not only disseminated Hermeticism within Byzantium but also introduced it to Europe, initially to Spain and France. Psellos’ efforts facilitated the rediscovery of Apollonius of Tyana as the true Christ in Europe, resulting in the West and the papacy punishing the Byzantine Empire. Altındal claimed that this triggered the Fourth Crusade and prompted the establishment of the Latin Kingdom of Constantinople.Footnote 56
Ertan Özyiğit, a nationalist conspiracy theorist, esoteric researcher, and close friend of Aytunç Altındal, described Psellos similarly in an episode of Kayıt Dışı (Off the Record), a television programme that aired on 26 January 2018. In this programme, which covered a range of topics including Nazis, Templars, American-British and Soviet plans for Turkey during the Cold War, enemies of the Turks, and the Turks’ ‘rightful’ claim to Asia Minor for nearly five thousand years, Özyiğit characterized Psellos as a Platonist, magician, and alchemist who was a key instigator of the East-West divide in world history. According to Özyiğit, after reading the Corpus Hermeticum obtained from the Urfa region near Harran, Psellos realized that the Catholic Church was deceiving people. He now understood that the Holy Trinity was not originally an element of Christianity. Following this realization, Özyiğit claims, Psellos reinterpreted the Holy Trinity, becoming the ‘father’ of Orthodoxy. Moreover, Psellos removed the image of Christ from the cross – which Özyiğit describes as a Catholic practice – and created the Orthodox cross. He further asserted that Psellos believed, just as Muslims do, that Jesus was a prophet, not God. According to Özyiğit, these revelations contributed to the Great Schism, the Crusades, and eventually the sack of Constantinople by the Latins in 1204.Footnote 57 Like Altındal, Özyiğit concluded by claiming that Psellos founded the first secret organization in Byzantium. He insisted that researchers have recently discovered Psellos’ tomb in İznik (Nicaea) and speculated that opening this tomb could impel scholars to rewrite major parts of global religious history. For Özyiğit, Psellos remains significant because the ancient knowledge he possessed, originating from ancient Mesopotamia and the Middle East, played a crucial role in shaping the East-West divide – a division that continues to influence the global order today and affects Turkey’s role within it.
A monograph entitled Hankâh and written by the Turkish conspiracy theorist Baran Aydın offers a more complicated portrait of Psellos. In this work, Aydın argues that the world is engulfed in a timeless conflict between two warring factions. The members of the first faction, which he calls the ‘Gizli Dokuzlar Kültü’ (‘Secret Nine Cult’) and the ‘Onlar Konseyi’ (‘Council of Ten’), are the masterminds behind pagan secret societies such as the Illuminati, Templars, and Rosicrucians.Footnote 58 According to Aydın, these groups seek to control human minds and dominate time itself through esotericism, alchemy, and mysticism.Footnote 59 The opposing faction, known as the ‘Hakk’ın Elçileri’ (‘God’s Prophets’) and composed of various ancient prophets and their followers, are the guardians of prophetic teachings.Footnote 60 Aydın argues that Turks, from ancient times to the present, have been integral members of this latter group, whose role is to protect the world and humanity.Footnote 61 In this narrative, Psellos is a mythic figure involved in the foundation of secret organizations that have historically opposed the Turks and now intend to dominate the global order.
Drawing heavily on Altındal’s narrative, Aydın argues that Psellos was deeply interested in alchemy, astronomy, and metaphysics.Footnote 62 After acquiring a secret text from Harran, the Corpus Hermeticum, Psellos had it translated in his secret study in the Hagia Sophia, incorporating its findings into both Church doctrine and daily life.Footnote 63 Through a secret organization called DAI (often associated with the Hashshashin and Hasan Sabbah), this translation began circulating in England and France.Footnote 64 Aydın suggests that these groups were mere instruments of more powerful organizations, with the Venetians as the ultimate masterminds.Footnote 65 According to Aydın, the Venetians, who governed the Venetian Republic alongside the Council of Ten, established one of their largest intelligence centres in Constantinople and were the first to acquire Psellos’ translation of the Corpus Hermeticum.Footnote 66 The circulation of this text, the author claims, ignited a new conflict against Islam and its defenders, which Aydın calls ‘Hankâh’. Shortly thereafter, the Knights Templar and Hashshashin, supported by the Byzantines, began to wage war against Muslims.Footnote 67 Aydın contends that the Knights Templar and modern secret organizations such as the Illuminati, Templars, and Rosicrucians, were all products of this same system.Footnote 68 Like previous accounts, Psellos’ role in Aydın’s narrative is both mythical and occult. In his view, Psellos is depicted as the custodian of the esoteric and secret knowledge that enabled the pagan organizations that the Turks have opposed for centuries to control the world.
A few observations can be made about Psellos’ role in the works of Turkish conspiracy theorists when compared to those of Western underground authors. Despite the Turkish authors’ anti-Western stance, the two groups depict Psellos in a similar light. Although Turkish conspiracy theorists do not cite specific sources, their understanding is heavily influenced by the published works of modern Western underground circles. They do not attempt to reject this Western portrayal of Psellos. Instead, they accept this Western narrative, integrating it into their own diatribes on secret histories and esoteric worlds.
Second, both Western and Turkish modern underground circles portray Byzantium as an exotic, secretive, oriental empire that preserved secret ancient knowledge during the medieval era. In the West, followers of the occult and esoteric traditions often feel a sense of indebtedness to Byzantium and Psellos or at least acknowledge their role in preserving and transmitting the Hermetic knowledge that is a cornerstone of their belief systems. In Turkey, this historical ‘reality’ is similarly acknowledged but not warmly embraced. Turkish conspiracy theorists instead express discomfort with Psellos and Byzantium, primarily because Psellos is considered to have transmitted this knowledge to the secret organizations they fervently oppose.
Third, in both Western and Turkish underground writers, a noticeable lack – or intentional disregard – of historical knowledge is evident. In modern underground circles, established historical facts and academic realities are often disregarded or left unacknowledged. These circles develop their own historiographical traditions and chains of knowledge transmission. Although there are occasional intersections between underground circles and modern academia, such as the influence of Walter Scott’s speculations on underground narratives, such connections are rare. Underground methodologies for ‘doing history’ diverge markedly from academic approaches. Often it is impossible to trace the source material used by these authors, even if their narratives remain surprisingly similar to one another. Finally, in the Turkish context, there is a uniquely pronounced obsession with incorporating Psellos, often abruptly and incoherently, into broader narratives about secret esoteric organizations and a hidden world order. In these narratives, Psellos is portrayed as the personification of Byzantium – a symbol of an occult, exotic, and dangerous past that continues to pose a threat to the well-being of the Turkish state.
Conclusion
An examination of various sources from modern underground circles reveals that the modern underground understanding of Michael Psellos primarily arises from a distortion of his scholarly identity, particularly his philosophical interests in Hermeticism and Neoplatonism. This distortion is amplified by Scott’s speculative claim that Psellos may have acquired the texts that later formed the Corpus Hermeticum from the Sabians, which led various groups to reimagine his persona and reinvent his legacy. Neither Western nor modern Turkish underground circles have made any effort to understand, research, or explain Psellos’ interests within the context of Byzantium, particularly the circulation and knowledge of ancient Greco-Egyptian Hermetic texts in Byzantium, without introducing an ‘exotic’ and ‘mysterious’ element from the East, especially the Sabians.
Psellos’ alternative identity in modern underground circles creates a bridge between Eastern and Western esoteric and occult traditions. These groups depict Psellos not only as a key figure in the transmission of secret knowledge to the West and the medieval Knights Templar but also as the founder of a secret organization called the Brothers of the East. Despite variations and a general lack of evidence, the authors remain unwaveringly certain of their narratives. In the realm of alternative reality, there is no uniformity; chronological inconsistencies and inaccuracies are ubiquitous. For example, some suggest that Psellos was alive and politically influential enough to hold a secret meeting with the Templars in 1096 or that a non-existent patriarch named Photios was the actual founder of the Brothers of the East in the eleventh century.
In Turkey, Psellos has a notable presence among conspiracy theorists who believe that esoteric organizations secretly control the world. Byzantium and Psellos, in such narratives, reflect broader trends in the popular understanding of the Byzantine Empire among right-wing extremists, Islamists, and certain nationalist groups. Psellos’ case exemplifies how the public reception of historical figures can differ widely from how academics portray them. This dynamic creates a parallel reality for historical figures and generates opportunities for various groups to weaponize, fetishize, and politicize history. Such information spreads rapidly through channels such as the internet, media, and non-academic publications, diminishing professional historians’ traditional hegemonic control over narratives of the past. This unregulated and often obscure alternative knowledge harbours the danger of profoundly influencing the public sphere.
For example, many Byzantinists may not realize that Western right-wing extremists and white supremacists no longer view the Byzantine Empire as a feminine, unmanly, weak, and corrupt power. Instead, Byzantium is perceived as a strong religious and military empire that fought against Muslims in defence of the Christian world.Footnote 69 Similar discourses about the Crusades are prevalent on social media platforms such as TikTok, Instagram, and Reddit. It is impossible to foresee what fate would befall Psellos were he to receive the same attention in non-academic circles as Theodora and Justinian. Perhaps his modern underground identity will likewise gain popularity in literature, film, video games, and visual art. However, it would not be surprising if political extremists embraced Psellos as the embodiment of this new Byzantine Empire – a mythical figure from its past who founded the Templars, paved the way for the Crusades and Templars, and helped halt the spread of Islam. This alternative reading of Psellos remains underground for now, but its future is unpredictable. There is no reason to believe that it will remain buried much longer.
Berke Çetinkaya is a PhD student in the Department of History at the University of Wisconsin–Madison. He works in the fields of Byzantine social and intellectual history, men and masculinity studies, and the reception of Byzantium in modern and contemporary politics and media. He recently co-authored ‘Translated Books on Byzantium in Turkey (1923–2023)’, in E. Akyürek and M. Özkılıç (eds), A Century of Byzantine Studies in Turkey: papers from the sixth international Sevgi Gönül Byzantine Studies Symposium (Istanbul 2024) 243–74.
Open access
