Introduction and previous research
Human adaptation to the high-altitude environments of the Tibetan Plateau is a key theme in archaeology (e.g. Chen et al. Reference Chen2015, Reference Chen2019; Meyer et al. Reference Meyer2017; Guedes & Aldenderfer Reference Guedes and Aldenderfer2020), but the prehistory of the north-eastern Tibetan Plateau remains poorly explored. While the Bronze Age Nuomuhong culture (1450–550 BCE) is known to have flourished in this region (Shui Reference Shui and Shui2001; Dong et al. Reference Dong2016), our understanding of this material culture has long relied on Talitaliha, the only Nuomuhong site excavated prior to 2021 (Wu Reference Wu1963). To address this research gap, a wide-scope survey was conducted in the region (Li et al. Reference Li2024). Xiaeryamakebu was the largest site subsequently discovered and is still the only Nuomuhong site with identified cemeteries to date (Guo et al. Reference Guo2024). Excavations conducted between 2021 and 2024, integrating coring and drone- and lidar-based surveys (Figure 4b), have provided the first comprehensive dataset for the Nuomuhong culture.
Xiaeryamakebu
Located in Dulan County, Qinghai Province in China, Xiaeryamakebu is 2990m above sea level (Figure 1). The southern terrace served as a residential area with two cemeteries (B & C) to the south; a third, larger cemetery (A) occupied the elongated northern terrace across the Hatu River (Figure 2). The entire site spans nearly 250 000m2, establishing it as the largest known prehistoric settlement in the Qaidam Basin.
Location of Xiaeryamakebu (figure by authors; base map source: ASTER GDEM V3 30M).
The different functional areas of Xiaeryamakebu and the locations of excavations (figure by authors).
The residential zone covers 70 000m2 with an occupation sequence divided into three developmental phases (Figure 3a). Phase 1 includes 16 rectangular, surface-level houses connected by shared cobble-built walls (Figure 3d). An elongated platform, oriented north-west to south-east, is flanked by two ditches, with the eastern ditch separating the platform from the houses. Phase 2 primarily features eight rubbish mounds (Figure 3f), an adobe wall to the west and bronze smelting and casting debris to the east. Goat and sheep bones are abundant, and cold-resistant barley accounts for 77 per cent of identified plant remains, indicating an agro-pastoral subsistence strategy. The adobe wall (Figure 3c), measuring over 13.8m in length, aligns with the southern edge of the western ditch. One mound contained smelting and casting remains, including burnt clay, charcoal, slag, clay moulds and fragments of crucibles (Figure 3b). During Phase 3, three cobble-walled enclosures were constructed; these likely functioned as defensive structures protecting both the inhabitants and their livestock. The best-preserved section of the stone wall retains a height of 1.8m (Figure 3e).
The residential area: a) aerial photograph of the excavation area; b) deposit of burnt clay and clay moulds; c) adobe wall; d) aerial photograph of the exposed house foundations; e) stone wall; f) profile of a rubbish mound (figure by authors and Tian Songlin).
With over 3200 burials identified, Xiaeryamakebu is currently the largest known Bronze Age cemetery in north-west China. Cemetery A contains more than 80 per cent of the burials (Figure 4a), while cemeteries B and C are significantly smaller, containing approximately 450 and 160 burials, respectively. The burials in cemetery A are uniformly oriented north-west to south-east and arranged in tightly packed rows; most are rectangular shaft-pit burials fitted with either a single coffin or nested coffins (Figure 4c). Some burials were substantial in size, with pits 4–5m long, 3m wide and 2.5m deep. The burials in cemetery B are similar to those in cemetery A, but are smaller in scale and contain fewer funerary offerings. The burials in cemetery C are too small to have accommodated adults buried in an extended supine position, and most pits are lined with cobbles instead of logs.
Cemetery A: a) plan showing the extent of the cemetery; b) lidar image of the north of the cemetery; c) aerial photograph of burial no. 56; d) pottery vessels in burial no. 56 (figure by authors and Tian Songlin).
In all excavated burials, human bones were scattered within the backfill and the coffin covers were damaged, indicating post-burial disturbance. However, funerary goods in the outer coffins remained undisturbed, suggesting that looting or retaliatory destruction was unlikely. Instead, these patterns are consistent with disturbed secondary burials, a common funerary ritual in the prehistoric Gansu-Qinghai region (Chen Reference Chen2006).
Funerary offerings are abundant in many burials. Pottery vessels and a rack of lamb ribs were often carefully arranged along the northern side of the outer coffin (Figure 4d). Bronze artefacts include tools (Figure 5e), chariot and horse fittings (Figure 5d & f) and ornaments (Figure 5a & h), while beads and pendants made of fired steatite (Figure 5g), carnelian, turquoise (Figure 5i) and cowrie shells (Figure 5k) were also recovered. Bark products were common, though only buckets (Figure 5j) and quivers (Figure 5c) could be identified. These assemblages indicate interaction with communities in the Hexi Corridor, the eastern Tianshan region and areas east of Qinghai Lake and towards central China.
Representative artefacts: a) a set of ornaments composed of a bronze bell, bars and linked beads, and turquoise sheet appliqués; b) painted double-handled jar; c) bark quiver with arrowheads made of bone and bronze inside; d) bronze pole-top terminal; e) bronze hook; f) bronze prod; g) fired steatite beads; h) bronze bull statuettes; i) carnelian and turquoise beads; j) bark bucket; k) cowrie shell anklet (figure by authors).
Samples for radiocarbon dating were obtained from across the site, although Phase 3 residential contexts did not yield suitable material. Calibrated ages indicate that cemetery activity spans c. 1450–950 cal BCE, while activity in the residential area spans c. 1450–1150 cal BCE (Figure 6), demonstrating substantial temporal overlap.
Bayesian model of radiocarbon dates from Xiaeryamakebu (figure by authors).
Conclusions
Xiaeryamakebu is the first Nuomuhong site excavated since 1956. As the largest multifunctional Bronze Age complex identified in the Qaidam Basin to date, its archaeological assemblage provides substantial evidence for understanding how agro-pastoralist communities adapted to the harsh mosaic of desert and oasis environments along the piedmont of the Tibetan Plateau. The extensive cemeteries have also permitted the first systematic documentation of Nuomuhong mortuary practices, providing key social insights into communities living outside China’s political centres during the latter half of the second millennium BCE. Access to exotic cowrie shells and carnelian beads, together with foreign-style bronzes and painted pottery (Figure 5b), demonstrate that Xiaeryamakebu served as a hub along the ancient Silk Route, connecting central China with regions such as Xinjiang and the central Tibetan Plateau.
Funding statement
This work was funded by the Key Projects of Philosophy and Social Sciences Research of the Ministry of Education (2024JZDZ055), the National Social Science Fund of China (22CKG007) and Open Research Projects under the Academic Development Program in Archaeology at Northwest University.
Author contributions: CRediT categories
Meng Guo: Data curation-Lead, Funding acquisition-Equal, Investigation-Lead, Methodology-Equal, Project administration-Equal, Resources-Equal, Supervision-Equal, Visualization-Lead, Writing - original draft-Lead, Writing - review & editing-Lead. Jinhui Xiang: Data curation-Lead, Funding acquisition-Equal, Investigation-Lead, Methodology-Lead, Validation-Equal, Writing - original draft-Supporting, Writing - review & editing-Equal. Wei Du: Funding acquisition-Lead, Project administration-Lead, Visualization-Equal, Writing - original draft-Equal, Writing - review & editing-Supporting. Feihu Wang: Data curation-Equal, Investigation-Equal, Project administration-Supporting, Writing - original draft-Supporting, Writing - review & editing-Supporting. Zhen Wang: Data curation-Equal, Investigation-Supporting, Methodology-Supporting, Writing - original draft-Supporting, Writing - review & editing-Supporting. Zhanwang Liu: Data curation-Equal, Investigation-Supporting, Project administration-Equal. Yahui Qiu: Data curation-Supporting, Investigation-Supporting, Writing - original draft-Supporting, Writing - review & editing-Equal. Yongming Xiao: Data curation-Equal, Investigation-Equal, Project administration-Equal, Resources-Equal, Writing - review & editing-Supporting. Honghai Chen: Conceptualization-Lead, Data curation-Supporting, Investigation-Lead, Resources-Lead, Writing - original draft-Supporting, Writing - review & editing-Supporting.
