Hostname: page-component-6766d58669-6mz5d Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2026-05-19T14:19:08.809Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Proactive and reactive aggression: Developmental trajectories and longitudinal associations with callous–unemotional traits, impulsivity, and internalizing emotions

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  03 April 2023

Erin P. Vaughan Open the ORCID record for Erin P. Vaughan [Opens in a new window] ,
Julianne S. Speck ,
Paul J. Frick ,
Toni M. Walker ,
Emily L. Robertson ,
James V. Ray ,
Tina D. Wall Myers ,
Laura C. Thornton ,
Laurence Steinberg  and
Elizabeth Cauffman Open the ORCID record for Elizabeth Cauffman [Opens in a new window]
Erin P. Vaughan*
Affiliation:
Department of Psychology, Louisiana State University, 236 Audubon Hall, Baton Rouge, LA 70803, USA
Julianne S. Speck
Affiliation:
Department of Psychology, Louisiana State University, 236 Audubon Hall, Baton Rouge, LA 70803, USA
Paul J. Frick
Affiliation:
Department of Psychology, Louisiana State University, 236 Audubon Hall, Baton Rouge, LA 70803, USA
Toni M. Walker
Affiliation:
Harris County Juvenile Probation Department, Houston, USA
Emily L. Robertson
Affiliation:
Florida International University, Miami, USA
James V. Ray
Affiliation:
University of Central Florida, Orlando, USA
Tina D. Wall Myers
Affiliation:
Louisiana Department of Health, Baton Rouge, USA
Laura C. Thornton
Affiliation:
ABT Associates, Cambridge, MA, USA
Laurence Steinberg
Affiliation:
Temple University & King Abdulaziz University, Philadelphia, USA
Elizabeth Cauffman
Affiliation:
University of California, Irvine, CA, USA
*
Corresponding author: Erin P. Vaughan, email: evaugh7@lsu.edu
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Research on proactive and reactive aggression has identified covariates unique to each function of aggression, but hypothesized correlates have often not been tested with consideration of developmental changes in or the overlap between the types of aggression. The present study examines the unique developmental trajectories of proactive and reactive aggression over adolescence and young adulthood and tests these trajectories’ associations with key covariates: callous–unemotional (CU) traits, impulsivity, and internalizing emotions. In a sample of 1,211 justice-involved males (ages 15–22), quadratic growth models (i.e., intercepts, linear slopes, and quadratic slopes) of each type of aggression were regressed onto quadratic growth models of the covariates while controlling for the other type of aggression. After accounting for the level of reactive aggression, the level of proactive aggression was predicted by the level of CU traits. However, change in proactive aggression over time was not related to the change in any covariates. After accounting for proactive aggression, reactive aggression was predicted by impulsivity, both at the initial level and in change over time. Results support that proactive and reactive aggression are unique constructs with separate developmental trajectories and distinct covariates.

Keywords

callous–unemotional traitsimpulsivityinternalizing emotionsproactive aggressionreactive aggression

Information

Type
Regular Article
Information
Development and Psychopathology , Volume 36 , Issue 3 , August 2024 , pp. 1090 - 1098
Check for updates
Copyright
© The Author(s), 2023. Published by Cambridge University Press

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

Article purchase

Temporarily unavailable

References

Aggensteiner, P. M., Holz, N. E., Böttinger, B. W., Baumeister, S., Hohmann, S., Werhahn, J. E., Naiijen, J., Ilbegi, S., Glennon, J. C., Hoekstra, P. J., Dietrich, A., Deters, R. K., Saam, M. C., Schulze, U. M. E., Lythgoe, D. J., Sethi, A., Craig, M. C., Mastroianni, M., Sagar-Ouriaghli, I., … Brandeis, D. (2022). The effects of callous-unemotional traits and aggression subtypes on amygdala activity in response to negative faces. Psychological Medicine, 52, 476–484. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0033291720002111 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Anderson, C. A., & Bushman, B. J. (2002). Human aggression. Annual Review of Psychology, 53(1), 27. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.53.100901.135231 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Arsenio, W. F., Gold, J., & Adams, E. (2004). Adolescents’ emotion expectancies regarding aggressive and nonaggressive events: Connections with behavior problems. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 89(4), 338–355. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jecp.2004.08.001 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bandura, A. (1973). Aggression: A social learning theory analysis. Prentice Hall.Google Scholar
Barker, E. D., Vitaro, F., Lacourse, E., Fontaine, N. M., Carbonneau, R., & Tremblay, R. E. (2010). Testing the developmental distinctiveness of male proactive and reactive aggression with a nested longitudinal experimental intervention. Aggressive Behavior, 36(2), 127–140.10.1002/ab.20337CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Berkowitz, L. (1993). Aggression: Its causes, consequences, and control. Mcgraw-Hill Book Company.Google Scholar
Bertsch, K., Florange, J., & Herpertz, S. C. (2020). Understanding brain mechanisms of reactive aggression. Current Psychiatry Reports, 22(12), 81. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11920-020-01208-6 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bollen, K. A., & Curran, P. J. (2006). Latent curve models: A structural equation perspective. John Wiley & Sons, Inc.Google Scholar
Bongers, I. L., Koot, H. M., van der Ende, J., & Verhulst, F. C. (2004). Developmental trajectories of externalizing behaviors in childhood and adolescence. Child Development, 75(5), 1523–1537.10.1111/j.1467-8624.2004.00755.xCrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Brown, K., Atkins, M. S., Osborne, M. L., & Milnamow, M. (1996). A revised teacher rating scale for reactive and proactive aggression. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 24(4), 473–480. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01441569 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bushman, B. J., & Anderson, C. A. (2001). Is it time to pull the plug on the hostile versus instrumental aggression dichotomy? Psychological Review, 108(1), 273–279.10.1037/0033-295X.108.1.273CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Card, N. A., & Little, T. D. (2006). Proactive and reactive aggression in childhood and adolescence: A meta-analysis of differential relations with psychosocial adjustment. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 30(5), 466–480. https://doi.org/10.1177/0165025406071904 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cardinale, E. M., & Marsh, A. A. (2020). The reliability and validity of the inventory of callous unemotional traits: A meta-analytic review. Assessment, 27(1), 57–71. https://doi.org/10.1177/1073191117747392 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Carroll, A., McCarthy, M., Houghton, S., O’Connor, E. S., & Zadow, C. (2018). Reactive and proactive aggression as meaningful distinctions at the variable and person level in primary school-aged children. Aggressive Behavior, 44(5), 431–441.10.1002/ab.21763CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cauffman, E., Beardslee, J., Fine, A., Frick, P., & Steinberg, L. (2021). Crossroads in juvenile justice: The impact of initial processing decision on youth 5 years after first arrest. Development and Psychopathology, 33(2), 700–713. https://doi.org/10.1017/S095457942000200X CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Chorpita, B. F., Moffitt, C. E., & Gray, J. (2005). Psychometric properties of the revised child anxiety and depression scale in a clinical sample. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 43(3), 309–322. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.brat.2004.02.004 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chorpita, B. F., Yim, L., Moffitt, C., Umemoto, L. A., & Francis, S. E. (2000). Assessment of symptoms of DSM-IV anxiety and depression in children: A revised child anxiety and depression scale. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 38(8), 835–855. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0005-7967(99)00130-8 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cui, L., Colasante, T., Malti, T., Ribeaud, D., & Eisner, M. P. (2016). Dual trajectories of reactive and proactive aggression from mid-childhood to early adolescence: Relations to sensation seeking, risk taking, and moral reasoning. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 44(4), 663–675. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10802-015-0079-7 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dodge, K. A. (1991). T he structure and function of reactive and proactive aggression. In Pepler, D. J. & Rubin, K. H. (Eds.), The Development and treatment of childhood aggression (pp. 201-218). L. Erlbaum Associates. Google Scholar
Dodge, K. A., & Coie, J. D. (1987). Social-information-processing factors in reactive and proactive aggression in children’s peer groups. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 53(6), 1146–1158. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.53.6.1146 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dodge, K. A., Lochman, J. E., Harnish, J. D., Bates, J. E., & Pettit, G. S. (1997). Reactive and proactive aggression in school children and psychiatrically impaired chronically assaultive youth. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 106(1), 37–51. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-843X.106.1.37 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Duan, J., Yang, Z., Zhang, F., Zhou, Y., & Yin, J. (2021). Aggressive behaviors in highly sadistic and highly impulsive individuals. Personality and Individual Differences, 178, 110875. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2021.110875 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Elowsky, J., Bajaj, S., Bashford-Largo, J., Zhang, R., Mathur, A., Schwartz, A., Dobbertin, M., Blair, K. S., Leibenluft, E., Pardini, D., & Blair, R. J. R. (2022). Differential associations of conduct disorder, callous-unemotional traits, and irritability with outcome expectations and values regarding the consequences of aggression. Child and Adolescent Psychiatry and Mental Health, 16(1), 1–11. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13034-022-00466-x CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fanti, K. A., Frick, P. J., & Georgiou, S. (2009). Linking callous-unemotional traits to instrumental and non-instrumental forms of aggression. Journal of Psychopathology and Behavioral Assessment, 31(4), 285. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10862-008-9111-3 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Finkel, E. J., & Hall, A. N. (2018). The I3 Model: A metatheoretical framework for understanding aggression. Current Opinion in Psychology, 19, 125–130. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.copsyc.2017.03.013 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fite, P. J., Colder, C. R., Lochman, J. E., & Wells, K. C. (2008). Developmental trajectories of proactive and reactive aggression from fifth to ninth grade. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 37(2), 412–421. https://doi.org/15374410801955920 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fite, P. J., Evans, S. C., Pederson, C. A., & Tampke, E. C. (2017). Functions of aggression and disciplinary actions among elementary school-age youth. Child & Youth Care Forum, 46, 825–839. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10566-017-9410-5 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fite, P. J., Raine, A., Stouthamer-Loeber, M., Loeber, R., & Pardini, D. A. (2010). Reactive and proactive aggression in adolescent males: Examining differential outcomes 10 years later in early adulthood. Criminal Justice and Behavior, 37(2), 141–157. https://doi.org/10.1177/0093854809353051 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fite, P. J., Stoppelbein, L., & Greening, L. (2009a). Proactive and reactive aggression in a child psychiatric inpatient population. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 38(2), 199–205. https://doi.org/10.1080/15374410802698461 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fite, P. J., Stoppelbein, L., & Greening, L. (2009b). Proactive and reactive aggression in a child psychiatric inpatient population: Relations to psychopathic characteristics. Criminal Justice and Behavior, 36(5), 481–493. https://doi.org/10.1177/0093854809332706 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Frick, P. J. (2022). Some critical considerations in applying the construct of psychopathy to research and classification of childhood disruptive behavior disorders. Clinical Psychology Review, 96, 1–11. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2022.102188 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Frick, P. J., Cornell, A. H., Barry, C. T., Bodin, S. D., & Dane, H. E. (2003). Callous-unemotional traits and conduct problems in the prediction of conduct problem severity, aggression, and self-report of delinquency. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 31(4), 457–470. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1023899703866 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Frick, P. J., Ray, J. V., Thornton, L. C., & Kahn, R. E. (2014). Can callous-unemotional traits enhance the understanding, diagnosis, and treatment of serious conduct problems in children and adolescents? A comprehensive review. Psychological Bulletin, 140, 1–57. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0033076 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Galbraith, S., Bowden, J., & Mander, A. (2017). Accelerated longitudinal designs: An overview of modelling, power, costs and handling missing data. Statistical Methods in Medical Research, 26(1), 374–398. https://doi.org/10.1177/0962280214547150 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hartley, C. M., Pettit, J. W., & Castellanos, D. (2018). Reactive aggression and suicide-related behaviors in children and adolescents: A review and preliminary meta-analysis. Suicide and Life-Threatening Behavior, 48(1), 38–51.10.1111/sltb.12325CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hu, L., & Bentler, P. M. (1999). Cutoff criteria for fit indexes in covariance structure analysis: Conventional criteria versus new alternatives. Structural Equation Modeling, 6(1), 1–55. https://doi.org/10.1080/10705519909540118 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hubbard, J. A., Dodge, K A., Cillessen, A. H. N., Coie, J. D., & Schwartz, D. (2001). The dyadic nature of social information processing in boys’ reactive and proactive aggression. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 80(2), 268–280. https://doi.org/10.1037//0022-3514.80.2.268 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hubbard, J. A., Smithmyer, C. M., Ramsden, S. R., Parker, E. H., Flanagan, K. D., Dearing, K. F., Relyea, N., & Simons, R. F. (2002). Observational, physiological, and self-report measures of children’s anger: Relations to reactive versus proactive aggression. Child Development, 73(4), 1101–1118. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-8624.00460 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Jambon, M., Colasante, T., Peplak, J., & Malti, T. (2019). Anger, sympathy, and children’s reactive and proactive aggression: Testing a differential correlation hypothesis. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 47(6), 1013–1024. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10802-018-0498-3 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jennings, W. G., & Reingle, J. M. (2012). On the number and shape of developmental/life-course violence, aggression, and delinquency trajectories: A state-of-the-art review. Journal of Criminal Justice, 40(6), 472–489. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcrimjus.2012.07.001 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jones, S. (2017). Does choice of measure matter? Assessing the similarities and differences among self-control scales. Journal of Criminal Justice, 50, 78–85. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcrimjus.2017.04.005 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kimonis, E. R., Frick, P. J., Skeem, J. L., Marsee, M. A., Cruise, K., Munoz, L. C., Aucoin, K. J., & Morris, A. S. (2008). Assessing callous-unemotional traits in adolescent offenders: Validation of the inventory of callous-unemotional traits. International Journal of Law and Psychiatry, 31(3), 241–252. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijlp.2008.04.002 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Latzman, R. D., & Vaidya, J. G. (2013). Common and distinct associations between aggression and alcohol problems with trait disinhibition. Journal of Psychopathology and Behavioral Assessment, 35(2), 186–196. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10862-012-9330-5 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Little, T. D., Henrich, C. C., Jones, S. M., & Hawley, P. H. (2003). Disentangling the “whys” from the “whats” of aggressive behaviour. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 27(2), 122. https://doi.org/10.1080/01650250244000128 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Loeber, R., & Hay, D. (1997). Key issues in the development of aggression and violence from childhood to early adulthood. Annual Review of Psychology, 48, 371–410. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.48.1.371 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lozier, L. M., Cardinale, E. M., VanMeter, J. W., & Marsh, A. A. (2014). Mediation of the relationship between callous-unemotional traits and proactive aggression by amygdala response to fear among children with conduct problems. JAMA Psychiatry, 71(6), 627–636. https://doi.org/10.1001/Jamapsychlatry.2013.4540 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Maldonado-Molina, M. M., Reingle, J. M., Tobler, A. L., Jennings, W. G., & Komro, K. A. (2010). Trajectories of physical aggression among Hispanic urban adolescents and young adults: An application of latent trajectory modeling from ages 12 to 18. American Journal of Criminal Justice, 35(3), 121–133. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12103-010-9074-2 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Marsee, M. A., Barry, C. T., Childs, K. K., Frick, P. J., Kimonis, E. R., Muñoz, L. C., Aucoin, K. J., Fassnacht, G. M., Kunimatsu, M. M., & Lau, K. S. L. (2011). Assessing the forms and functions of aggression using self-report: Factor structure and invariance of the Peer Conflict Scale in youths. Psychological Assessment, 23(3), 792–804. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0023369 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Marsee, M. A., & Frick, P. J. (2007). Exploring the cognitive and emotional correlates to proactive and reactive aggression in a sample of detained girls. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 35(6), 969–981. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10802-007-9147-y CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Marsee, M. A., Frick, P. J., Barry, C. T., Kimonis, E. R., Centifanti, L. C. M., & Aucoin, K. J. (2014). Profiles of the forms and functions of self-reported aggression in three adolescent samples. Development and Psychopathology, 26(3), 705–720. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0954579414000339 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
McAuliffe, M. D., Hubbard, J. A., Rubin, R. M., Morrow, M. T., & Dearing, K. F. (2006). Reactive and proactive aggression: Stability of constructs and relations to correlates. Journal of Genetic Psychology, 167(4), 365–382. https://doi.org/10.3200/GNTP.167.4.365-382 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
McKenzie, K., Murray, A., Freeston, M., Whelan, K., & Rodgers, J. (2019). Validation of the Revised Children’s Anxiety and Depression Scales (RCADS) and RCADS short forms adapted for adults. Journal of Affective Disorders, 245, 200–204. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2018.10.362 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Merk, W., Orobio de Castro, B., & Koops, W. (2005). The distinction between reactive and proactive aggression: Utility for theo…: Discovery. European Journal of Developmental Psychology, 2(2), 197–220.10.1080/17405620444000300CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Monahan, K. C., Steinberg, L., Cauffman, E., & Mulvey, E. P. (2009). Trajectories of antisocial behavior and psychosocial maturity from adolescence to young adulthood. Developmental Psychology, 45(6), 1654–1668. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0015862 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Moore, C. C., Hubbard, J. A., Bookhout, M. K., & Mlawer, F. (2019). Relations between reactive and proactive aggression and daily emotions in adolescents. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 47(9), 1495–1507. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10802-019-00533-6 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Muñoz, L. C., Frick, P. J., Kimonis, E. R., & Aucoin, K. J. (2008). Types of aggression, responsiveness to provocation, and callous-unemotional traits in detained adolescents. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 36(1), 15–28. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10802-007-9137-0 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Murray, A. L., Obsuth, I., Zirk-Sadowski, J., Ribeaud, D., & Eisner, M. (2020). Developmental relations between ADHD symptoms and reactive versus proactive aggression across childhood and adolescence. Journal of Attention Disorders, 24(12), 1701–1710. https://doi.org/10.1177/1087054716666323 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Muthén, L. K., & Muthén, B. O. (2005). Chi-square difference testing using the Satorra–Bentler scaled chi-square. Retrieved from https://www.statmodel.com/chidiff.shtml Google Scholar
Nagin, D., & Tremblay, R. E. (1999). Trajectories of Boys’ physical aggression, opposition, and hyperactivity on the path to physically violent and nonviolent Juvenile delinquency. Child Development, 70(5), 1181–1196.10.1111/1467-8624.00086CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ojanen, T., & Kiefer, S. (2013). Instrumental and reactive functions and overt and relational forms of aggression: Developmental trajectories and prospective associations during middle school. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 37(6), 514–517. https://doi.org/10.1177/0165025413503423 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Paré-Ruel, M., Brendgen, M., Ouellet-Morin, I., Lupien, S., Vitaro, F., Dionne, G., & Boivin, M. (2022). Unique and interactive associations of proactive and reactive aggression with cortisol secretion. Hormones and Behavior, 137. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.yhbeh.2021.105100 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Pérez Fuentes, M. D. C., Molero Jurado del, M. M., Carrión Martínez, J. J., Mercader Rubio, I., & Gázquez, J. J. (2016). Sensation-seeking and impulsivity as predictors of reactive and proactive aggression in adolescents. Frontiers in Psychology, 7. https://www.frontiersin.org/article/10.3389/fpsyg.2016.01447 10.3389/fpsyg.2016.01447CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Poulin, F., & Boivin, M. (2000). Reactive and proactive aggression: Evidence of a two-factor model. Psychological Assessment, 12(2), 115–122. https://doi.org/10.1037/1040-3590.12.2.115 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ray, J. V., & Frick, P. J. (2020). Assessing callous-unemotional traits using the total score from the inventory of callous-unemotional traits: A meta-analysis. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 49(2), 190–199. https://doi.org/10.1080/15374416.2018.1504297 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Smithmyer, C. M., Hubbard, J. A., & Simons, R. F. (2000). Proactive and reactive aggression in delinquent adolescents: Relations to aggression outcome expectancies. Journal of Clinical Child Psychology, 29(1), 86–93.10.1207/S15374424jccp2901_9CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Song, J., Colasante, T., & Malti, T. (2020). Taming anger and trusting others: Roles of skin conductance, anger regulation, and trust in children’s aggression. British Journal of Developmental Psychology, 38, 42–58. https://doi.org/10.1111/bjdp.12304 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Storvall, E. E., & Wichstrøm, L. (2003). Gender differences in changes in and stability of conduct problems from early adolescence to early adulthood. Journal of Adolescence, 26(4), 413–429. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-1971(03)00028-9 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Urben, S., Habersaat, S., Pihet, S., Suter, M., Ridder, J., & Stéphan, P. (2018). Specific contributions of age of onset, callous-unemotional traits and impulsivity to reactive and proactive aggression in youths with conduct disorders. Psychiatric Quarterly, 89(1), 1–10. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11126-017-9506-y CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Vagos, P., Marinho, P. I., Pandeirada, J. N. S., Rodrigues, P. F. S., & Marsee, M. (2021). Measuring forms and functions of aggression in Portuguese young adults: Validation of the Peer Conflict Scale. Journal of Psychoeducational Assessment, 39(7), 902–908. https://doi.org/10.1177/07342829211018106 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Walters, G. D. (2005). Proactive and reactive aggression: A lifestyle view. In Morgan, J. P. (Ed.), Psychology of aggression. (pp. 29–43). Nova Science Publishers.Google Scholar
Wechsler, D. (1999). Wechsler abbreviated scale of intelligence. The Psychological Corporation.Google Scholar
Weinberger, D. A., & Schwartz, G. E. (1990). Distress and restraint as superordinate dimensions of self-reported adjustment: A typological perspective. Journal of Personality, 58(2), 381–417. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-6494.1990.tb00235.x CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Xie, H., Drabick, D. A., & Chen, D. (2011). Developmental trajectories of aggression from late childhood through adolescence: Similarities and differences across gender. Aggressive Behavior, 37(5), 387–404.10.1002/ab.20404CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed