SERVICE LEARNING IN LOCAL GOVERNMENT

State municipal associations have the potential to broker information about staffing needs within a state’s local-government workforce as well as to bridge faculty in the classroom and service-learning opportunities with local governments. In the study of public management and policy networks, intermediary organizations are described as actors who bridge structural gaps in social networks for the purpose of connecting resources and enhancing capacity (cf. Beveridge Reference Beveridge, Davoudi, Cowell, White and Blanco2019; Huset al. Reference Hu, Medina, Siciliano and Wang2023). Arnold and Plant (Reference Arnold and Plant1994, 149) explicitly highlighted an intermediary role for municipal associations in their seminal book, stating that “a major purpose of associations is to institutionalize linkages—that is, to provide coordination points for state and local governments.” Yet, they also described municipal associations as “marginal” in the development of public-affairs education (Arnold and Plant Reference Arnold and Plant1994, 144). Although municipal associations form bridges between states and local governments, they may not invest the same effort to connect cities to the state’s universities and system of higher education. Therefore, we should hypothesize variation in the extent to which municipal associations engage as intermediaries in service learning.

Service learning is one component of a broader agenda to enhance experiential learning in higher education by forging links between what happens in the classroom and the wider community served by colleges and universities (Boyer Reference Boyer1990; Fitzgerald et al. Reference Fitzgerald, Bruns, Sonka, Furco and Swanson2012). Service learning can illuminate career paths and job opportunities for students, and carefully crafted programs may yield broad civic benefits. Students who participate in service-learning courses report higher levels of civic responsibility and intentions for future civic action (Hébert and Hauf Reference Hébert and Hauf2015; Hunter and Brisbin, Jr. Reference Hunter and Brisbin2000; Moely et al. Reference Moely, McFarland, Miron, Mercer and Ilustre2002). Campbell (Reference Campbell2000), for example, argued that experiences that strengthen bonds of connectedness may enhance students’ future collective action. Therefore, many faculty in political science and public affairs have been attentive to the design and incorporation of service learning in their courses. When service learning involves local government, students also gain insight into how local political institutions interact with community problem solving. For instance, van Assendelft (Reference van Assendelft2008) crafted service learning with both community volunteer activities and public-meeting attendance, thereby helping students to integrate their understanding of civic action and formal policy making.

To benefit from service learning, faculty and universities invest significant time and resources to foster successful partnerships. For example, Bernstein, Ohren, and Shue (Reference Bernstein, Ohren and Shue2003) described a project that provided students in two undergraduate courses the opportunity to apply research-methods skills and local-government knowledge to assess public attitudes about a city street millage rate. The authors reported mutual benefits for students, who gained direct experience with a local-government project, and the city government, which gained data and insight into public attitudes about infrastructure and taxes. To achieve these benefits, faculty undertook significant organizational and project costs, which may be viewed as a barrier to service learning. Whereas faculty enthusiasm and investment may be critical factors in the success of service learning, universities and external partners can set the stage to ease the costs and burdens associated with project identification and management. For example, Christensen and Jackson (Reference Christensen, Jackson, Redlawsk and Rice2009) described the institutionalization of a partnership between San Jose State University and a proximate neighborhood, whereby the establishment of an office inside the university routinized engagement with neighborhood residents, organizations, and projects. By developing a focal point for community engagement and the development of service-learning projects, the university assumed organizational costs to sustain consistent engagement and to aid faculty in the process of matching courses with opportunities for service. These and other examples of successful service learning demonstrate that faculty leadership and institutional support are critical for project success.

Although these service-learning models are laudable, the need to develop the future local-government workforce should incentivize more action on the part of the local government management profession. Linking students with service-learning opportunities can inspire interest in public-service careers. Arnold and Plant (Reference Arnold and Plant1994) described an era in which state and local public-official associations had a more active role in the professionalization of the workforce. In the conclusion of their book, they expressed concern that associations of the late-twentieth century did not share the same commitment to education and professionalization characteristic of an earlier era in public administration. Associations offered a wide range of seminars and professional opportunities to their members but did not exhibit the same commitment to external engagement. Regarding “preservice education,” Arnold and Plant (Reference Arnold and Plant1994, 254) argued that “this is an area where associations may wish to be more active, acquainting students and university faculty with a sense of the opportunities available in public service employment.” Many municipal associations across the United States still offer educational opportunities to their members; however, the survey described herein indicates that few collaborate with universities to invest in the professionalization of the future workforce.

STATE ASSOCIATION ENGAGEMENT: SURVEY AND INTERVIEW EVIDENCE

In February 2021, following a modified version of Dillman’s (Reference Dillman2000) total-design method, a two-page survey was mailed to the executive director or leader of each state municipal association in the United States. Contact was initiated with a postcard that notified the recipients of a forthcoming survey about municipal association engagement with higher-education institutions. One week later, the survey document was mailed with a postage-paid return envelope; reminders to nonrespondents were mailed about four weeks later. Twenty of the 50 associations returned a survey by mail—a 40% response rate. In addition to the surveys, key-informant interviews were conducted with association leaders in three states to gain more insight into their model for engaging students.

The survey queried how frequently municipal associations interact with higher-education institutions in their state in eight different activities. Results are summarized in figure 1. The most frequent interaction was reported for training sessions: eight associations reported weekly or monthly interaction and another seven reported interaction a few times each year. Obtaining research, data, or information was another common area of engagement: 14 associations reported interaction at least a few times each year. Associations also provide data to universities: four reported weekly or monthly interaction and another seven reported interaction a few times each year. In the areas of engagement proximate to service learning and career preparation, the survey revealed less-frequent interaction. Eighteen of the 20 respondents provided guest speakers to higher education at least once per year, although only two of those associations reported monthly contact. Nineteen respondents reported sharing information about careers in local government, with nine of those stating that the contact is only once per year. Thirteen associations reported connecting for class projects at least once per year, but seven reported no interaction on class projects—the largest category for which associations reported no contact. Nine of the associations reported hosting interns, either in-person or through telework, and many of those internships were paid. In summary, the associations responding to the survey had occasional contact with higher-education institutions, but service learning and career development appeared to be more limited than other types of contact.

Figure 1

Frequency of Municipal Association Interaction with Higher-Education Institutions

State-level data were examined to glean more insight into which states invested in service-learning links with higher education. State population, measured by the 2020 US Census; the number of municipalities in a state, measured by the 2022 Census of Governments from the US Census Bureau; and the number of undergraduate students within a state, measured by the 2021–2022 Integrated Postsecondary Education Data System, were tested to identify correlations with engagement measures from the survey. Few findings were significant. The frequency of providing guest speakers for courses demonstrated a modest correlation with the number of municipalities in the state (r=0.29). The frequency of sharing information about local-government careers modestly correlated with state population (r=0.39) and the number of undergraduate students in the state (r=0.37). Serving as an intermediary between universities and municipalities for service learning yielded weak correlations for all three measures. Together, the survey and secondary state data suggest that states with larger populations and undergraduate student bodies may be more engaged with universities to help students learn about local government. However, association engagement with higher education requires more investigation.

The survey asked respondents, “Have you confronted any challenges or barriers when working with higher-education institutions in your state?” Six associations identified challenges, describing misaligned goals, inconsistent points of contact at universities, and limited local-government course offerings. For example, one association stated that “Sometimes there has been a disconnect between what we expect as a project outcome and what the student is approved to provide. Clearer communication up front about the mutual benefit of the project would help.” Another shared, “Faculty and staff turnover have made it historically difficult to try to sustain programs. Not enough emphasis on municipal government in higher-education programs—particularly at the undergrad level.” Together, the survey evidence indicates that communication between municipal associations and higher-education associations is present but has room for improvement.

Nevertheless, within the data, there are exemplars of engagement, and several association leaders agreed to be interviewed to provide more insight into successful association–university engagement. Key-informant interviews are ideal for gleaning expert insight into organizational success (Weiss Reference Weiss1994). Examples from three states illustrate how municipal associations can forge relationships with higher-education institutions, thereby opening service-learning opportunities for students. The audio-recorded interviews were conducted on Zoom between February and March 2021.

IMPROVING THE PATH FROM SERVICE LEARNING TO LOCAL-GOVERNMENT CAREERS

Municipal associations and universities have the potential to benefit from stronger ties, but both parties must make new investments to forge sustainable service-learning relationships. “I think there is a tremendous amount of value to be derived by a municipal association in having an ongoing dialogue with their colleges and universities in their state around how they can partner on things,” explained one association official. Examples of success feature reciprocity, clear communication, and high levels of faculty engagement. In the interest of introducing more students to career pathways in local government, both parties have a reason to collaborate. Pedersen (Reference Pedersen2013) found that students’ field of study in higher education moderates the relationship between public-service motivation and public- versus private-sector career choices. If this is true, then crafting student exposure to local government across fields may be necessary to illuminate pathways into local-government careers. Municipal associations may find open doors with political science faculty who already are teaching students about government. However, faculty and university leaders should consider how to engage a broader base of students in service-learning opportunities that highlight local-government career paths.

Whereas prior studies provide evidence that service learning enhances student learning (Warren Reference Warren2012), many challenges attend the successful pedagogical design of service-learning courses. Developing the interpersonal and organizational relationships linking universities, municipal associations, and cities may be among the most difficult and important design problems to solve (Bringle, Clayton, and Price Reference Bringle, Clayton and Price2009). Service learning will not be a panacea for the staffing challenges facing local governments. Educating more undergraduate students about career opportunities in local governments is one step in expanding their understanding of careers in public service, and well-designed service learning may enhance their civic engagement (Hébert and Hauf Reference Hébert and Hauf2015; Nishishiba, Nelson, and Shinn Reference Nishishiba, Nelson and Shinn2005). If these goals are to be realized—and empirically assessed with more rigor—investments from municipal associations, cities, and universities will be necessary.

For municipal associations, identifying campus offices with responsibility for service learning may help to match associations with faculty interested in crafting service-learning courses. “Universities need to figure out a way…where there is almost a front door to the university, so they make themselves a little more accessible and available,” argued one association leader. University career centers and government relations offices should work together on this problem. If municipal associations are to serve as a bridge, developing a clear entry point to the university through the government relations office or career center may provide consistency and ease communication burdens. For municipal associations that do not already have strategies for university engagement, a within-state assessment of existing municipal–university connections is warranted. Understanding which cities partner with higher-education institutions, and how those partnerships benefit cities and students, may be a first step in expanding such engagement. Following the Georgia Municipal Association model, maintaining a list of cities interested in university- and student-supported projects also is a simple and practical step to reduce the organizational costs of identifying service-learning partners for faculty. Finally, municipal associations should create and distribute local-government-career information to higher-education institutions within the state, targeting career centers and academic departments that are working in areas of critical need. By doing this, associations can highlight opportunities and initiate more conversations about local-government careers, thereby fulfilling part of the linkage role described by Arnold and Plant (Reference Arnold and Plant1994).

For faculty, developing regular communication with municipal associations may routinize career-development relationships with local governments. Increasing the frequency of association-staff engagement on campus is a first step, including speaking invitations in relevant political science courses and the exchange of information about career-center recruiting events. Incremental improvements in contact facilitate dialogue about shared interests, allowing both parties to develop comfort with the benefits of working together. Informing municipal associations about regular course offerings that link to specific needs of city or county governments may aid associations in the identification of partners, as illustrated by the Georgia and Washington models. Service-learning success stories and the illustration of positive results for students may aid municipal associations in the recruitment of more local governments to partner with colleges and universities in the future. Faculty also should consider collaborating with campus career centers to provide municipal associations with data about student understanding of local-government career opportunities. By collecting and sharing data on student perceptions of these opportunities, universities may be able to motivate municipal associations into more action.

Finally, this study prompts several questions that require attention from scholars in political science and public administration. Systematic analysis of the educational role of local-government associations is limited. Whereas Arnold and Plant (Reference Arnold and Plant1994) recommended that associations do more to foster student interest in government careers, the evidence presented herein suggests limited progress. A disconnect exists between general lamentations about the preparation of students for work in local government and purposeful action to illuminate career pathways. Do municipal associations have the capacity to engage in outreach with higher-education institutions in their state? Can we learn more about what differentiates the state associations that are active in this area in contrast to those that are not? Evidence from this survey suggests that measures of state and undergraduate student population alone do not adequately explain variation in engagement. How are associations responding to dynamics in the labor market and the shortage of skilled workers in local government? Across states, is variation in local-government administrative capacity related to the quality of collaboration between municipal associations and higher-education institutions? Can service-learning partnerships enhance student consideration of public-service career opportunities? If municipal associations take action, can scholars use social-network analysis to explain the gains in engagement between municipalities and higher-education institutions over time? The continued development of professional local-government administration and the career readiness of students will benefit from a more systematic investigation into these questions.