Introduction
The cities of Roman northern Syria, most notably Antioch on the Orontes, Apameia on the Orontes, Seleucia in Pieria, and Laodicea at the Sea, were among the most important economic, cultural, and religious centers of Roman western Asia, and we must assume that they were also centers of architectural investment and innovation.Footnote 1 Our understanding of their urban layouts and architecture during the Roman Imperial period, however, remains strikingly limited. One key reason lies in the prolonged prosperity many of these cities experienced in Late Antiquity: extensive rebuilding between the 4th and 6th c. CE largely obliterated urban landscapes of the earlier periods. Some of the cities are still urban centers today, making it even more difficult to gain information about the urban fabric in antiquity; others have been submerged in reservoirs. More recently, the war in Syria has wreaked havoc on ancient sites, further constraining opportunities for research into ancient urbanism. Recent excavations at Zeugma have shed important new light on urban life and material culture in ancient northern Syria, but evidence for public buildings and religious architecture remains scarce.Footnote 2 North of Palmyra, only very few religious buildings survive within urban contexts.Footnote 3 This makes the recent discovery of a large apsidal structure – interpreted here as a temple – at the city center of Doliche particularly interesting.
Doliche
The ancient city of Doliche is situated at the edge of a fertile plateau in the transition zone between the foothills of the Taurus Mountains and the northern Syrian highlands (Fig. 1). Today, the site lies on the northern outskirts of the modern city of Gaziantep. It occupies a natural hill, called Keber Tepe, which covers an area of about 0.7 km2 and rises 70 m above the surrounding plain. It is now partly used for agricultural purposes.
Map of ancient northern Syria with the location of Doliche. (Doliche Urban Excavations Project/Asia Minor Research Centre, University of Münster.)
Fig. 1. Long description
The map depicts ancient northern Syria, focusing on the location of Doliche and other notable cities. Key locations such as Germanicia, Cyrrhus, Hierapolis, and Edessa are marked. The map shows rivers and geographical features, including the Taurus Mountains and the Syrian highlands. Doliche is situated at the edge of a fertile plateau in the transition zone between these regions. The map provides a visual representation of the ancient urban landscape and the strategic positioning of Doliche.
Doliche was probably founded in the 3rd c. BCE, although there is, for the time being, little archaeological evidence of a settlement in the Early Hellenistic period.Footnote 4 In the 1st c. BCE, Doliche was briefly part of the kingdom of Commagene, but, after 30 BCE, it became part of the Roman province of Syria. During the Roman Imperial period, the city was strategically located on the main road running from the Euphrates crossing at Zeugma in the east to Cilicia in the west. It was at this time that the city’s main god, commonly known as Jupiter Dolichenus, became popular with Roman soldiers.Footnote 5 His cult is well documented in many parts of the Roman Empire.Footnote 6 The results of the excavations attest to a flourishing of the city during this period, with large-scale public building activity in its eastern part, consisting of a large bath complex as well as the apsidal structure discussed in this article. However, this period of prosperity came to an abrupt end when the Persian Great King Shapur I destroyed the city in 253 CE.Footnote 7
The archaeological investigation of the city by a team from the Asia Minor Research Centre of the University of Münster began in 2015.Footnote 8 Since then, an intensive survey,Footnote 9 geophysical prospection (Electrical Resistivity Tomography, Ground-Penetrating Radar, and Magnetometry),Footnote 10 and targeted excavations have been carried out.Footnote 11 One focus of the project is on the city center of the Roman Imperial period, which occupies a large plateau on the southeastern flank of the hill (Figs. 2–3).Footnote 12 Between 2017 and 2020, public baths and parts of an administrative building, which included the city archive (a room where several thousand impressions of official and individual seals were found that were once attached to documents), were investigated in this area.Footnote 13 In 2021, investigations of the southwestern boundary of the city center, west of the Roman baths, began. No ancient structures were visible on the ground in this area – largely due to centuries of agricultural activity, such as ploughing and field clearing, as well as erosion and looting – but geophysical surveys had indicated the presence of a large rectangular structure with an apsidal room at its western end (Fig. 4). After three seasons of excavation (2021–2023), this structure was identified as a monumental building from the 2nd c. CE. It consists of a large central space divided into three aisles by two inner colonnades and terminating in an apse with annex rooms. It is also surrounded by colonnades on three sides. We interpret this building as a large temple: a peripteros sine postico.
General map of the city area of Doliche (Keber Tepe), showing the location of the excavation areas (2015–2023). (Doliche Urban Excavations Project/Asia Minor Research Centre, University of Münster.)
Fig. 2. Long description
The map displays the city area of Doliche, also known as Keber Tepe, highlighting the locations of excavation areas conducted between 2015 and 2023. Key labeled locations on the map include the Apsidal Temple, Terrace Church, Baths, and City Archive. The map uses contour lines to indicate elevation and includes a scale for distance measurement. The excavation areas are marked with specific symbols, and the map provides a detailed layout of the city’s topography and significant archaeological sites.
Overview of the Roman Imperial-period city center of Doliche, looking north. The apsidal building is in the foreground to the left, west of the road. (Doliche Urban Excavations Project/Asia Minor Research Centre, University of Münster.)
Fig. 3. Long description
An aerial view captures the Roman Imperial period city center of Doliche, looking north. The image prominently features an apsidal building situated in the foreground to the left, west of a central road. The landscape is characterized by a large plateau on the southeastern flank of a hill, with various archaeological structures and excavation sites visible. The surrounding area includes a mix of greenery and barren land, with modern industrial buildings and infrastructure in the distant background. The archaeological investigation, conducted by a team from the Asia Minor Research Centre of the University of Munster, began in 2015 and includes intensive surveys, geophysical prospection methods such as Electrical Resistivity Tomography, Ground-Penetrating Radar, and Magnetometry, as well as targeted excavations.
Map of the GPR results in the area of the apsidal building (depth 0.9–1.1 m). (Çağlayan Balkaya, Yunus Levent Ekinci, Olcay Cakmak, and Mehmet Ali Kaya.)
Fig. 4. Long description
The heat map displays GPR results in the area of an apsidal building at a depth of 0.9 to 1.1 meters. The map features a grid layout with varying color intensities, where red indicates higher activity or density. The overall structure shows clusters of high-intensity areas, suggesting significant subsurface features. The map includes labeled regions and outlines of potential archaeological structures. The data is actual and represents the results of geophysical prospection conducted by a team from the Asia Minor Research Centre of the University of Mnster.
A total of 19 trenches were opened during the excavations. Some of them are adjacent to each other and form continuous areas, particularly in the southwest, northwest, and southeast corners of the building. To facilitate the understanding of the structure, we do not refer to individual trenches, but to the larger excavation areas (A–G) as shown in the overview plan (Fig. 5). In the report below, first, the two main archaeological phases of each area will be discussed, namely 1) the apsidal building itself, and 2) evidence for the reuse of the structure after its destruction. An assessment and discussion of the findings then follows.
Overview plan of the areas excavated in 2021–2023. (Plan by Theresa Pommer.)
Fig. 5. Long description
The image presents an overview plan of the areas excavated in 2021-2023. It shows a detailed layout of the excavation site with multiple trenches and labeled areas. The trenches are grouped into larger excavation areas, such as Area A, Area B, Area C, Area D, Area E, Area F, and Area G. Each area is marked with specific labels and boundaries, indicating the extent of the excavations. The plan includes various structures and features discovered during the excavations, such as walls, rooms, and other archaeological findings. The trenches are depicted with dashed lines, and the excavated structures are shown in different shades to distinguish between Roman and post-Roman periods. The plan also includes a scale bar for reference and a legend explaining the symbols used.
Description
The construction of the apsidal building was preceded by massive levelling operations to create a terrace sufficiently large to accommodate both the structure itself and a surrounding courtyard. As the terrain slopes gently to the northwest, it was necessary to quarry substantial quantities of bedrock in the western part of the construction site.Footnote 14 This process produced a roughly north–south-running vertical rock face, reaching a maximum height of approximately 2.50 m, which terminated the building to the west.Footnote 15 Conversely, in the southeastern and eastern parts of the building, where the terrain sloped downwards and created a natural depression separating the construction site from the bath building further east, the ground had to be artificially raised to compensate for the height difference between the eastern and western parts of the structure. To this end, a massive substructure composed of irregularly sized ashlars, including spolia of uncertain provenance, was created to support a terrace to the south and southeast of the building. As a result, the western end of the building was partially sunken into the ground, whereas further east, the floor levels lay significantly above the surface of the surrounding courtyard.
Following the levelling works, large parts of the building area consisted of exposed bedrock, a clayish limestone. The hardness and durability of this limestone vary greatly across the area of the building, and it is evident that the builders were well aware of these differences. In some areas, most notably in the western Areas A and B, the walls were founded directly on the flattened bedrock surface. In Areas C, D, E, F, and G, by contrast, the limestone was deemed too friable to serve as a reliable foundation. Here, foundation trenches were cut into the bedrock and subsequently filled with ashlars of high-quality limestone.
Given the prominent location of the apsidal building within the city center, it is likely that the site had already been developed well before its construction. The extensive levelling operations, however, removed almost all traces of earlier activity. Remains of older walls have survived only around the structure’s northwest corner. Their precise function remains unclear, but the use of carefully carved embossed ashlars and metal clamps points to a high-status building, possibly dating to the Late Hellenistic period.
Areas A and B
Phase 1 (the apsidal building)
The largest continuous excavation areas are A and B in the western part of the building, which is also the best preserved. The results obtained in these areas are therefore crucial for understanding the overall layout and architectural articulation of the structure.
Area A covers 270 m2 and includes the southern half of the apse and the southern side room, as well as parts of the nave and the southern aisle of the large central space, and the foundation trench of the southern outer colonnade (Figs. 6–7). The apse can be reconstructed with a total width of approximately 14 m and a depth of 5 m. Its original floor has not survived; only a roughly smoothed bedrock surface remains. The apse is enclosed by a gently curving wall of finely dressed ashlar blocks (WA03). The substantial space between this wall, the southern side room, and the vertical rock face that forms the western termination of the building is filled with large ashlars of varying size and shape (WA02), preserved in up to three layers to a maximum height of 1.80 m.
View of the excavated areas in the western part of the apsidal building (Areas A and B), generated from 3D SfM model, looking west. (Doliche Urban Excavations Project/Asia Minor Research Centre, University of Münster.)
Fig. 6. Long description
An aerial view of the excavated areas in the western part of an apsidal building, specifically Areas A and B, generated from a 3D SfM model. The perspective is looking west. Area A covers 270 square meters and includes the southern half of the apse, the southern side room, parts of the nave, the southern aisle of the large central space, and the foundation trench of the southern outer colonnade. The image reveals intricate details of the archaeological site, including various structures and layout features.
View of Area A, with the southern annex room, southern side aisle, and the southern part of the apse, generated from 3D SfM model, looking north-west. (Doliche Urban Excavations Project/Asia Minor Research Centre, University of Münster.)
Fig. 7. Long description
The image presents a detailed 3D model of Area A, focusing on the southern annex room, the southern side aisle, and the southern portion of the apse. The perspective is oriented towards the north-west, providing a comprehensive view of the architectural layout. The model is generated using Structure from Motion (SfM) technology, capturing intricate details of the ancient structure. This visualization is part of the Doliche Urban Excavations Project conducted by the Asia Minor Research Centre at the University of Münster.
At its southern end, the apse terminates in a pier with an engaged half column, which articulated the transition to a colonnade separating the central nave from the southern aisle. Nearby lies the base of a second, smaller pillar with elaborate moldings (AB01). Together, these elements allow the reconstruction of a tripartite transition between apse and nave, consisting of a central opening ca. 7.50 m wide flanked by two very narrow passages. Numerous fragments of concrete and lightweight scoria indicate that the apse was covered by a half dome.Footnote 16 Fragments of plaster, found in the apse, with widely spaced multicolored glass and stone tesserae must have belonged to the decoration of the walls and/or the half dome.
A narrow corridor connected the apse to the southern side room, which measures 4.40 × 2.75 m. As in the apse, its original floor is lost. Only the roughly worked bedrock (BB04) remains, sloping upward towards the west. The southern wall of the side room (WA01) is 1.70 m wide. Its lower part is carved directly from the bedrock, while the upper courses consist of large ashlars. Of particular note is a niche set into this wall, measuring 1.40 m in width and 0.85 m in depth, beginning approximately 0.50 m above the modern floor level. This niche is axially aligned with the corridor connecting the side room to the apse.Footnote 17
The side room was probably accessible from the southern aisle of the central space, which is 4.9 m wide and paved with a tessellated mosaic floor (FB01) (Fig. 8). This is, to date, the only preserved ancient floor of the building. The tesserae are made of white, red, and dark gray stone and have an average length of 1.25 cm on each side, with a height of 2.2 cm. They are set into a two-layer bedding consisting of a setting bed and a mortar bed. The mosaic is framed by a reticulated pattern of alternating red and dark gray lines on a white ground, with small, stylized rosette-like motifs placed at the center of each white square. The central field is composed of a meandering swastika, with the spaces between staggered to form squares. The swastikas are made of white tesserae on a dark gray and red background; the white squares are alternately framed in red and dark gray and have individual stylized illusionist cubes in red, white, and dark gray at their centers.
Bird’s-eye view of the excavated section of the southern aisle in Area A with the mosaic floor. (Doliche Urban Excavations Project/Asia Minor Research Centre, University of Münster.)
Fig. 8. Long description
The image presents a bird’s-eye view of an excavated section of the southern aisle in Area A. The central space, which is 4.9 meters wide, is paved with a tessellated mosaic floor. The mosaic floor, labeled as FB01, displays intricate geometric patterns. Surrounding the mosaic floor are various stone structures and remnants of walls, indicating the archaeological excavation process. The image captures the detailed layout and design of the ancient floor, providing insights into the historical architecture and craftsmanship.
Of the colonnade separating nave and aisle, only a foundation trench has survived. This trench is 0.60 m deep and 1.50 m wide and was cut directly into the bedrock. The southern outer wall of the building itself has not been preserved, but its foundation trench and some ashlars from the lowest foundation course – laid as alternating headers and stretchers – remain in situ. The wall had a width of only 1.20 m, approximately 0.50 m less than that of the wall enclosing the southern side room. South of wall WA01, a second, wide foundation trench, 2 m wide, was cut into the bedrock. Although excavated to a depth of ca. 1.80 m, its base has not yet been reached. No ashlars were found within it, indicating that the foundations were robbed and the trench subsequently backfilled with debris. This trench aligns with the southern foundation trench in Area F and must therefore have been constructed for the foundations of an outer colonnade.
Area B comprises the northern side room of the apse and the northern outer wall (Fig. 9). The side room is identical in dimensions and layout to its southern counterpart. Its original floor is likewise lost, and the surviving bedrock surface (BB10) is irregularly worked. To the south, the room is bounded by a massive pier, constructed of large ashlars (WA05), located in the corner behind the apse and originally supporting the half dome. Three courses are preserved, standing to a height of 1.80 m. Unlike in the case of the southern pier, the bedrock beneath the northern pier was removed to accommodate a foundation consisting of at least one ashlar course.
Bird’s-eye view of Area B with the northern annex room, cella wall, and later installations, looking north. (Doliche Urban Excavations Project/Asia Minor Research Centre, University of Münster.)
Fig. 9. Long description
An aerial view captures an archaeological excavation site, revealing various walls and structures. The site is divided into distinct sections, with the northern annex room and cella wall prominently visible. Later installations are also evident within the excavation area. The layout shows a mix of preserved and partially excavated walls, indicating different phases of construction and use. The site is oriented to the north, providing a clear perspective of the spatial arrangement and historical layers of the area.
To the north, a wall (WA06) running west–east and abutting the rock face to the west forms the outer wall. This wall is preserved in four courses of ashlars, reaching a height of up to 2.40 m. As in the southern outer wall, a niche is set into the masonry, aligned with the corridor connecting the apse to the northern side room.
Behind the outer wall, several features have been uncovered that predate the apsidal building (Fig. 10). The most significant is a wall constructed of embossed ashlars joined with metal clamps, which was cut by the construction of the apsidal building. None of the features identified in this area can be securely associated with an outer colonnade. However, a deep north–south-oriented cut may relate to the foundations of a peristasis.
Foundation of the podium (WB05) in the southeastern corner of the apsidal building (Area E), looking south. (Doliche Urban Excavations Project/Asia Minor Research Centre, University of Münster.)
Fig. 10. Long description
The image presents a cross-sectional view of an archaeological excavation site. In the foreground, there is a well-preserved stone pavement composed of large, rectangular stones with visible holes. Surrounding the pavement, the excavation reveals distinct layers of soil and earth, indicating different periods of activity. The background shows a mix of greenery and distant urban structures, suggesting the site is located near a modern city. The overall scene highlights the contrast between ancient ruins and contemporary development.
Later phases
Following the demolition of the apsidal structure, most of its architectural remains were systematically quarried, accounting for the limited degree of preservation. The apse and the side rooms, however, must have survived the initial phase of destruction largely intact, as they were subsequently converted into a series of discrete rooms opening towards the east. In this phase, a new doorway was inserted between the southern side room and the southern aisle. The apse itself was subdivided into at least two rooms by an east–west-oriented wall constructed of rubble and spolia in the technique of opus africanum. At the same time, both the corridor connecting the apse with the side rooms and the passages linking the apse to the central space of the building were blocked.
In the area of the southern aisle, traces of reuse are less clear. Nevertheless, it appears that an additional room was created in front of the southern side room by blocking the intercolumnia and erecting a massive north–south-oriented wall incorporating large spolia.
Immediately south of the southern annex room, a dwelling comprising at least four rooms was constructed directly on the exposed bedrock surface. The surviving wall sections are built of rubble and reused stones, and one floor was made of reused tiles. Prior to the construction of this building, the foundations of the outer colonnade had been completely removed, as the structure occupies the backfilled foundation trench.
In Area B, no clear evidence for reuse has been identified within the northern side room itself. However, new rooms were constructed to the north and west of the outer wall. Their purpose is still unclear. Particularly striking is the heterogeneous character of the masonry in this confined area, which points to multiple phases of rebuilding. It is noteworthy that the embossed ashlar wall mentioned above, which predates the apsidal structure, was also included in the later constructions.
Areas C and D
Phase 1 (the apsidal building)
Areas C and D are located to the northeast and east of the building. In Area C, the principal feature is a north–south-oriented foundation trench (BB23), the base of which is cut into the rock. Measuring 2.50 m in width, this trench must be associated with the foundations of the eastern wall of the large central space. Along its eastern edge, a course of ashlars (WC13) survives in situ. This feature has not yet been fully exposed, as it is partly overlain by later constructions. To the west of the trench, the bedrock surface was carefully levelled, evidently to receive the foundations of the northern inner colonnade.
In Area D, two north–south-running foundation trenches were identified. The western trench (BB25) represents the continuation of the foundation trench documented in Area C; here, too, fragments of the original ashlar foundation survive along its eastern edge. A second foundation trench (BB26), located 4.10 m to the east and running parallel to the first, measures 1.80 m in width and has been entirely robbed. The space between the two trenches is filled with coarse opus caementicium, the upper surface of which is notably even, suggesting that it originally served as a bedding for ashlar blocks.
Later phases
Following the removal of ashlar blocks from the structure’s foundations, a cistern was excavated into the western part of Area C. To the east, close to the modern ground surface, a small oven was uncovered, constructed largely from reused roof tiles.
In Area D, the situation is more complex and difficult to interpret. Ashlars of varying size were found in situ but without a clear architectural context. These may represent remains of structures erected after the destruction and systematic spoliation of the apsidal building, although it cannot be excluded that some belong to the original foundations (or even precede them). An east–west-oriented canal cut into the opus caementicium block between the two foundation trenches must postdate the removal of the ashlar blocks that once rested upon it. The continuation of this canal was identified in Area E, confirming its integration into a later water-management system.
Area E
Phase 1 (the apsidal building)
Area E encompasses parts of the southeastern corner of the structure. The western portion of the area is dominated by a massive foundation (WB05) composed of ashlars of varying size and shape, including a number of clearly identifiable spolia (Fig. 10). One to two courses are preserved. This foundation extends well beyond the line of the southern colonnade of the apsidal building and must therefore also have functioned as a substructure for a surrounding courtyard. To the south, the foundation is interrupted by a broad east–west-oriented cut; nevertheless, ashlar blocks continue into the southern profile (WC19), indicating that the foundation originally extended further in this direction.
To the north, the ashlars of WB05 abut a rectangular block of opus caementicium (FC13), which appears to be contemporary with WB05 and likewise forms part of the building’s foundation grid. This block extends into the northern profile and seems to correspond to the opus caementicium block identified in Area D, suggesting a continuous foundation arrangement across the two areas.
East of the opus caementicium block FC13 lies a further north–south-oriented foundation trench (FC14) (Fig. 11), measuring 1.80 m in width and aligned with foundation trench BB26 in Area D. Immediately to the east of FC14, two slabs of hard limestone (DA09) are preserved in situ. Along their western edge runs a shallow north–south gully, indicating that the slabs formed the western boundary of a paved surface extending across an open space in front of the building. This observation is significant for several reasons. First, the slabs define the eastern extent of the apsidal building in this area. Second, they demonstrate that the floor level of the courtyard was considerably lower than that of the structure itself, implying that the eastern part of the building stood on a high podium.Footnote 18 A further implication is that a staircase providing access to the building cannot have extended along the entire eastern façade, but must instead have been restricted to the central portion of the front.
Foundation trench FC14 in the southeastern corner of the apsidal building (Area E), looking north. (Doliche Urban Excavations Project/Asia Minor Research Centre, University of Münster.)
Fig. 11. Long description
The image shows a foundation trench labeled FC14 in the southeastern corner of an apsidal building. The trench is oriented north-south and is located east of an opus caementicium block labeled FC13. The trench is surrounded by soil and contains various stone fragments and layers. Measurement sticks are placed on either side of the trench for scale, and a small blue and white object is visible near the bottom left corner. The overall scene is part of an archaeological excavation site, with the trench being the primary focus.
Later phases
The most prominent features dating to the period following the destruction of the apsidal structure are the remains of several water channels, predominantly oriented north–south. They all postdate the destruction of the structure, but the significant differences in height indicate that they were built at different times. By the time the water channels were installed, the architectural remains of the apsidal structure, including the foundations, had already been largely removed. The construction of the water channels nevertheless caused additional damage to the surviving foundations. A deep east–west-oriented channel appears to have been responsible for the substantial cut observed in the foundation WB05/WC19.
Areas F and G
Phase 1 (the apsidal building)
In both these areas, the bedrock lies immediately beneath the modern surface. In Area F, two parallel foundation trenches were identified, both cut directly into the bedrock and reaching a depth of approximately 2 m. The southern trench, measuring 2.40 m in width, is aligned with foundation trench BC01 in Area A and most likely formed part of the foundations of an outer colonnade. The width of the northern trench cannot be determined, as its northern edge has not been exposed; it lies on the line of the southern wall of the central space. Both trenches were entirely robbed of their ashlar foundations and subsequently backfilled with soil and debris, which included several large fragments of architectural decoration.
In Area G, the bedrock surface was roughly levelled across most of the area, but no in situ remains of ancient masonry have survived. Nevertheless, it is possible to trace the line of the inner colonnade. In the southwestern corner, the bedrock was carefully dressed to receive architectural elements. Further east, where the bedrock is visibly weaker and was evidently considered unsuitable for supporting columns, a foundation trench was cut and filled with ashlar blocks.
Later phases
Within this relatively limited area, six cisterns were cut into the bedrock. All were found backfilled with soil and stones, and in one case the ceiling had collapsed. Given the close spacing of their access openings, it is likely that some – if not all – of the cisterns were hydraulically connected. The total water-storage capacity of this system must have been substantial, although the precise function of the installations remains uncertain. The discovery of Mamluk coins in this area, otherwise unattested at Doliche, may indicate that the cisterns remained in use after the abandonment of the city in the 12th c. CE.
Reconstruction of the building
The findings outlined above permit a preliminary reconstruction of the building, although some uncertainty remains regarding the precise design of its eastern part. The structure was of monumental scale and consisted of a large central space opening onto an apse at its western end, flanked by two annex rooms. While the eastern part of the building stood on an elevated podium, the apse and annex rooms in the west were sunken into the bedrock. The foundation trenches BC01 (Area A) and BC03 (Area F) confirm the existence of an outer colonnade running close to the outer walls of the structure. Although no fragments of columns or column bases from this outer colonnade have yet been identified, numerous elements of the entablature resting on the outer columns, including pediment fragments, a frieze with garlands and erotes, and geison blocks, were recovered (Fig. 12). In addition, several fragments of column capitals of varying size were found, some of which may have belonged to the outer colonnade. On the basis of the well-documented foundation trenches, the total width of the building can be reconstructed as approximately 36.5 m.
Debris with geison fragments in the corridor between the apse and the southern annex room in Area A. (Doliche Urban Excavations Project/Asia Minor Research Centre, University of Münster.)
Fig. 12. Long description
The image shows a section of ancient ruins featuring large stone blocks and intricately carved architectural fragments. These fragments include parts of the entablature such as pediment pieces, a frieze adorned with garlands and erotes, and geison blocks. The ruins are situated in a corridor between an apse and a southern annex room, with the stones arranged in a way that suggests they were once part of a larger, monumental structure. The setting appears to be an archaeological site, with the stones partially embedded in the ground and surrounded by smaller debris.
The central hall measured 25 m in width. Two rows of columns subdivided it into a nave, measuring 15.6 m across, and two narrower side aisles (Fig. 13). The base of the engaged column at the transition between the apse and the central space, together with a complete, though displaced, column base, indicates that the inner columns had a lower diameter of 0.96 m. For reconstructing the spacing of the columns, an intercolumnium of three column diameters (ca. 2.88 m) may be assumed, resulting in 10 columns per row. The side aisles measured approximately 4.9 m in width, from the outer wall to the axis of the colonnade. Although the aisles were considerably narrower than the nave, this configuration clearly defines a tripartite spatial arrangement. The side aisles functioned as separate, secondary spaces, a hierarchy that was probably emphasized through differences in the floor decoration. While the side aisles were paved with mosaics, there is no evidence that mosaics were used in the nave, the apse, or the annex rooms. No traces of mortar beds were found in these areas, nor were any mosaic fragments or tesserae. It is therefore most plausible that these spaces were paved with stone slabs, possibly of marble. Such pavements would have been entirely removed during the systematic spoliation of the structure, whereas the tessellated floors of the aisles were evidently regarded as of little value and left in situ. If this interpretation is correct, the contrast between slab-paved nave and mosaic-paved aisles would have articulated a clear spatial hierarchy within the building.
Reconstruction of the apsidal building. (Reconstruction by Theresa Pommer.)
Fig. 13. Long description
An aerial view of a reconstructed apsidal building, showing excavated and reconstructed structures. The central hall measures 25 meters in width and is divided into a nave, 15.6 meters across, and two narrower side aisles by two rows of columns. The building features a series of columns along the perimeter and internal divisions. The layout includes various labeled sections indicating probable and assumed structures.
The apse, measuring approximately 14 m in width and 5 m in depth, was covered by a half dome constructed of concrete. This is indicated by the massive piers located in the corners behind the apse, as well as by large fragments of concrete and lightweight scoria recovered during excavation. The precise articulation of the transition between apse and nave is difficult to reconstruct; however, the piers separating the apse from the central space may have supported a large arcuated lintel.
The eastern end of the structure presents greater interpretative challenges. Nevertheless, it appears certain that the north–south-oriented foundation trenches identified in Areas C, D, and E belonged to the eastern wall of the central space and to a colonnade fronting the building. This interpretation is corroborated by the two limestone slabs with an associated gully (DA09) in Area E, which border foundation trench FC14 and can be identified as part of the paved courtyard surface in front of the structure. On this basis, the total length of the building can be reconstructed as approximately 57 m, comprising a porticus measuring ca. 6.5 m and a cella, including the apse, of ca. 50.5 m.
The layers of ashlars in Area E (WB05/WC19) are likely the remains of the podium of the building and the substructure that was necessary to raise the ground to its southeast. The height and design of the podium cannot be reconstructed with certainty, but if the two slabs and the gully DA09 in front of the foundation FC14 indicate the walking level in front of the building, the difference in height between the pavement and the mosaic floor of the aisle was approximately 1.70 m. This would be the minimum height of the podium. However, the elevation of the bedrock in the southwest and northwest corners of the building suggests that the podium was considerably higher. In order to create a symmetrical outer colonnade with all columns starting at the same level, the pronounced height difference between the western rock surface and the front of the building to the east had to be compensated for. This would have required a minimum elevation for the eastern podium of approximately 3.50 m. As a result, the podium level with the outer colonnades would have stood higher than the floor level of the central space, which is indicated by the in situ mosaic floor.
It remains uncertain whether one or two rows of columns stood on the podium in front of the building. However, the space between the eastern wall and the foundation trenches BB26 and FC14 would have been sufficient to accommodate two rows.
No evidence for the roofing system has survived. It is nevertheless most likely that the roof was carried by transverse wooden beams supported by the inner colonnade. This would have required a span of 15.6 m, which lies well within feasible limits.Footnote 19 The alternative interpretation – an apse opening onto a colonnaded open court – appears considerably less convincing. The existence of inner colonnades is unequivocal, implying roofed side aisles. A hypaethral nave would therefore have been an unusually narrow space enclosed by porticoes, for which no convincing parallels are known in ancient architecture.Footnote 20 The apse, by contrast, was clearly covered by a concrete half dome. The annex rooms may likewise have been vaulted, which would explain why their enclosing walls are markedly thicker than those of the central space.
Only a limited number of decorative elements have survived. Most significant is the mosaic floor of the southern aisle, which situates the building within both regional and trans-regional artistic traditions and confirms that this space was roofed. The basic geometric patterns employed are widely attested throughout the Roman Empire.Footnote 21 However, some motifs and stylistic elements – the swastika meander pattern in white, red and dark gray tesserae and the net pattern with stylized, rosette-like motifs – are so far attested only in the neighboring city of Zeugma, suggesting a regional workshop or a regionally developed visual idiom.Footnote 22 The glass tesserae found in the area of the apse can be attributed to the decoration of the walls or, more likely, the half dome, as, from the 1st c. CE onwards, glass became the predominant material in such mosaics.Footnote 23
The chronology of the structure cannot yet be discussed in detail. Owing to the absence of finds that can be securely associated with its period of use, the analysis of the architectural decoration will be crucial for establishing a more precise date. A preliminary assessment of the architectural decoration suggests an origin in the Antonine period.Footnote 24 The decorative and stylistic features of the southern aisle’s mosaic likewise suggest a mid- to late 2nd-c. CE date, particularly considering its links to the mosaics of Zeugma. Excavations behind the structure revealed rich finds of pottery from fill layers, which appear to have been accumulated during the construction phase. Among the fine wares, Eastern Sigillata A and locally produced slipped fine wares from the Late Hellenistic to the Early Roman period are very dominant, which makes a 2nd-c. CE construction date highly probable.Footnote 25
Later phases (destruction and reuse)
The poor state of preservation makes it impossible to draw definitive conclusions regarding the circumstances of the building’s destruction. Nevertheless, it must be assumed that the Persian conquest of the city in 253 CE, mentioned in the introduction, brought about its demise. The adjacent bath building and the city archive were destroyed during this event, and neither was rebuilt.Footnote 26 Against this background, it appears very probable that the apsidal building was destroyed at the same time. A destruction by fire is further suggested by traces of burning observed on many of the surviving architectural elements.
The excavation results indicate that the destruction of the city by Shapur I constituted a decisive rupture in the urban history of Doliche. The city center was abandoned at this point and never fully reoccupied. When urban life revived in the 4th c. CE, the focus of settlement shifted further to the west. At the same time, the public buildings of the former city center, including the apsidal structure, were systematically looted and almost completely dismantled. With the exception of a few ashlar blocks from the lowest foundation courses of both walls and peristasis, the masonry was removed.Footnote 27 Only the apse, with its half dome made of concrete resting on massive piers, and the annex rooms survived the destruction and were reoccupied. This created a stark imbalance in the distribution of the surviving structural remains. While the central and eastern parts of the building disappeared almost completely, the western part, including the apse, remained standing for several centuries and escaped the systematic demolition.Footnote 28
With regard to the reuse of the apse and its adjacent spaces, a precise chronology cannot yet be established. A preliminary assessment of the pottery and glass finds, however, suggests that the newly created rooms remained in use into the early Islamic period. The sparse remains of a multi-room building constructed to the south and north of the apse and the annex rooms may be contemporary with this phase, but the available evidence does not yet permit firm conclusions.
Further west, the only evidence of human presence during the period after the demolition of the structure is water installations, most importantly water channels, which appear to have served for drainage and wastewater removal. The cisterns in the central part of the cella cannot be dated with certainty, and some may even predate the construction of the structure, but the discovery of three Mamluk coins in this area, the only coins of this late period found in the excavations so far, may suggest that they were still in use in the 14th c., or at least that the area continued to be frequented.
Interpretation of the building
The final question concerns the function of the building. Thorough dismantling in Late Antiquity has resulted in a complete absence of objects or inscriptions that might directly reveal its original purpose. Interpretation must therefore rely exclusively on the architectural remains and the reconstructed layout. The building’s striking monumentality, unusual design, and central location within the city strongly suggest that it served a public and/or religious function.
At first glance, the tripartite layout of the central space, combined with an apse and annex rooms at the western end, recalls the civil basilicas of the Roman Imperial period. Although basilicas were relatively uncommon in the eastern provinces, prominent examples are known from Asia Minor and the southern Levant.Footnote 29 Given the paucity of evidence for civil public architecture in Roman northern Syria, the existence of a civil basilica at Doliche cannot be excluded outright. However, the narrow peristasis formed by the surrounding colonnades has no parallel among Roman civil basilicas and argues strongly against such an interpretation. In addition, the elevated podium at the eastern end would have significantly restricted access, a feature incompatible with the open and inclusive character of civil basilicas.
A more convincing interpretation is that the apsidal structure functioned as a temple, a peripteros sine postico, lacking detached columns at the rear. Within this framework, the apse would have served as a monumental shrine for the cult image or images, clearly visible from the nave. Interpreted in this way, the building represents an exceptional example of religious architecture in Roman northern Syria, notable both for its scale and for its highly unusual design. The dimensions of its cella exceed those of the temple of Bel at Palmyra and approach those of the cella of the temple of Jupiter Heliopolitanus at Baalbek (Fig. 14).Footnote 30 However, the narrow pteron of the Doliche temple would have produced a less expansive and less imposing visual effect. The mosaic decoration of floors, walls, and domes was probably a standard feature of many Roman temple interiors, yet archaeological evidence for such decoration in Roman Western Asia is surprisingly scarce. This makes the building in Doliche important for our understanding of temple interiors.Footnote 31
Selected examples of temples for comparison with the Doliche apsidal building. (1) Temple of Bel, Palmyra (Drawing: L. Liebetruth, based on Seyrig et al. Reference Seyrig, Will and Amy1975, 98); (2) Temple of Bacchus, Baalbek (Drawing: A. Mertens, based on Wood Reference Wood1757, pl. XXXVII, and Puchstein Reference Puchstein1905, fig. 11); (3) Temple of Jupiter, Baalbek (Drawing: B. Fehling, based on Puchstein 1914 in van Ess 1999, fig. 73); (4) Temple of Baalshamin, Palmyra (Drawing: A. Keriakos, based on Collart and Vicari Reference Collart and Vicari1969 in Segal Reference Segal2013, figs. 43 and 49); (5) Temple, Mismiyeh (Drawing: T. Pommer, based on S. Hill 1975 in Segal Reference Segal1998, fig. 11); (6) Temple in Slim (Drawing: T. Pommer, based on Butler Reference Butler1915, pl. III); (7) Apsidal Temple in Burqush (Drawing: T. Pommer, based on Krencker and Zschietzschmann Reference Krencker and Zschietzschmann1938, pl. 100); (8) Temple of Tyche in Is Sanamein (Drawing: V. Röhrig, based on Cummings Reference Cummings1909, 418, and Barcsay in Freyberger Reference Freyberger2010/2011, 491); (9) Temple of Baal Shamin in Kedesh (Drawing: V. Salvia, based on Fischer et al. Reference Fischer, Ovadiah and Roll1984, fig. 3); (10) Temple in Doliche (Drawing: T. Pommer).
Fig. 14. Long description
The image presents a comparative diagram of the floor plans of ten ancient temples. The temples include the Temple of Bel in Palmyra, the Temple of Bacchus in Baalbek, the Temple of Jupiter in Baalbek, the Temple of Baal Shamin in Palmyra, a temple in Mismiyeh, a temple in Slim, an apsidal temple in Burqush, the Temple of Tyche in Is Sanamein, the Temple of Baal Shamin in Kedesh, and a temple in Doliche. Each temple’s floor plan is labeled with a number from 1 to 10, corresponding to the list provided. The diagram shows the layout and structure of each temple, highlighting their unique architectural features and designs. The temples are generally aligned to the north, with some slight adjustments for orientation. The scale of 50 meters is indicated for reference.
Beyond its dimensions, the most distinctive features of the building are the division of the naos into three aisles and the combination of a domed apse with flanking annex rooms at the western end. This configuration sets the temple apart from most religious buildings of the Roman Imperial period. There is, however, a group of apsidal temples in southern Syria that provide partial comparanda. Examples are known at Burqush and Rahle in the Hermon,Footnote 32 at Al-Sanamayn, Slim, and Mismiyeh in the Hauran,Footnote 33 and at Kedesh in Upper Galilee.Footnote 34 Further north, at Palmyra, the temple of Baalshamin was likewise equipped with an apse and annex rooms.Footnote 35 These apsidal temples represent variations on a typical Near Eastern temple design, which is characterized by a prominent adyton.Footnote 36 This was a separate but highly visible room, usually at the rear end of the temple, housing the cult statues. There is no example of a temple with an adyton, apsidal or otherwise, from ancient Syria north of Palmyra, but it is significant that Lucian of Samosata explicitly mentions an adyton, which he calls thalamos, in his description of the temple of Dea Syria at Hierapolis, not far from Doliche.Footnote 37 This testimony indicates that temples with adyta existed in the region, and the temple at Doliche may represent a version of a building type that was common in northern Syria. Whether the apse indeed served as an adyton cannot be decided with any certainty, but it is likely that citizens were allowed to enter the temple but had to remain in the cella, while access to the apse would have been restricted to certain priests.Footnote 38
The discovery of the apsidal temple in Doliche underscores how limited our knowledge of sacred architecture in the cities of Roman northern Syria remains. Although the apsidal temples of southern Syria provide useful points of reference, the most striking difference is their scale. The largest of the southern Syrian examples, the temple at Mismiyeh, measures only 24.28 × 16.40 m.Footnote 39 This makes the temple at Doliche the most monumental and most elaborate apsidal temple known in Syria to date. This disparity suggests that the Doliche building was unlikely to have been directly inspired by southern Syrian prototypes. Moreover, the apse itself was not a local invention. While the adyton as a shrine for cult images has a long tradition in the Near East, its transformation into an apsidal form occurred only in the 2nd c. CE. It has been convincingly argued that the introduction of the apse into the religious architecture of southern Syria reflected broader developments in Roman imperial architecture.Footnote 40 Beginning with the temple of Venus Genetrix on the Forum Iulium, some of the most prominent temples in Rome were equipped with apses.Footnote 41 The apse became a monumental architectural frame for the cult images, creating a new spatial hierarchy and changing the religious experience of the people.Footnote 42 During the 1st and 2nd c. CE, this combination of apse and image spread widely across the empire. In Syria, the concept of the apse was merged with that of the adyton, resulting in a more open yet still hierarchically structured display of the cult image. At the same time, apses became prominent features in other architectural contexts in Syria, most notably in so-called kalybe buildings, which are open sanctuaries and meeting places centered on one or more apses.Footnote 43
In the temple of Doliche, a Roman connection is also evident in the construction techniques. Unlike the apsidal temples of southern Syria, concrete was employed both in the construction of the half dome over the apse and in parts of the foundations. The building thus reflects Roman imperial architectural trends not only in its design but also in its building technology.
The question of the temple’s dedication remains unresolved. No inscriptions or finds identify the deity or deities worshipped here, and interpretation must therefore remain hypothetical. At first glance, the apsidal arrangement and parallels with temples in southern Syria might suggest a dedication to a local deity. However, the sanctuary of the main gods of the city, Jupiter Dolichenus and Juno Regina, was centered outside the city on the nearby Dülük Baba Tepesi mountain.
This does not exclude the existence of a prominent temple of a local god in the city, but an alternative and perhaps more compelling interpretation is that the temple was dedicated to the imperial cult.Footnote 44 This would accord well with the presence of the apse, as buildings associated with the imperial cult frequently employed apses to display statues of the emperor and his family.Footnote 45 Many of the apsidal structures mentioned above, both in Syria and elsewhere, have indeed been identified as imperial cult buildings.Footnote 46 The extraordinary scale of the Doliche temple further supports this hypothesis, as the construction of such a monument required massive intervention in the topography of the city center. Given Doliche’s relatively modest size and secondary status compared to cities such as Samosata, Zeugma, and Antioch on the Orontes, it is difficult to imagine that such a project was financed solely by local civic elites. It is therefore conceivable that the widespread popularity of the cult of Jupiter Dolichenus across the empire attracted imperial attention and favor, possibly resulting in direct financial or logistical support for a monumental temple associated with imperial ideology. At the same time, it cannot be excluded that even smaller cities in Roman northern Syria possessed sufficient wealth and ambition to erect buildings of exceptional scale. Given the lack of comparative evidence, a definitive conclusion is not possible.
Finally, the temple at Doliche may also contribute to broader discussions concerning the emergence of the basilica as a Christian religious building type in the 4th c. CE. Its three-aisled plan with an apse, combined with geometrically patterned mosaic floors and mosaic decoration in the half dome, closely anticipates features that were later characteristic of Christian basilicas. This is not to suggest a direct line of influence from Syrian temples to Christian churches. Rather, the discovery at Doliche indicates that architectural concepts, decorative schemes, and spatial arrangements later associated with Christian basilicas were already familiar in the region. Such familiarity may have facilitated the rapid adoption of the basilica form in Syria, where, apart from a few exceptions, there was no strong pre-existing tradition of basilical architecture. In Doliche itself, however, the apsidal temple was destroyed long before the time when the first churches were erected in the 4th c. CE.
Conclusion
If our interpretation is correct, the building at Doliche would represent the first large urban temple excavated in this region to date. The monumentality of the structure is striking and presupposes the availability of substantial financial resources in Doliche during the 2nd c. CE. At the same time, the absence of inscriptions or artifacts directly related to cult practice, together with the extensive looting and destruction that followed the Persian sack of 253 CE, has obscured much of the building’s original meaning and significance. Despite these limitations, the archaeological and architectural evidence allows for cautious conclusions regarding its use and cultural context.
In terms of design and construction techniques, particularly the use of concrete and the inclusion of an apse framed by a half dome, the building aligns more closely with Roman architectural traditions than with regional Syrian precedents. This convergence of Roman and local traditions raises the possibility that the building was associated with the imperial cult, a hypothesis further supported by the presence of the apse, an architectural element frequently employed in contexts dedicated to emperors and members of the imperial family.
If the apsidal building was indeed dedicated to the imperial cult, the structure may illustrate the culturally complex outcomes that can result from negotiations between the imperial authorities and local elites. Research across the Roman Empire has demonstrated that manifestations of the imperial cult did not imply the mere top-down imposition of architectural forms developed in the capital. Rather, they involved relational processes in which local, regional, and trans-regional elements were selectively combined.Footnote 47 The mechanisms behind the local embedding of trans-local (imperial) forms were probably greatly influenced by the affordances and genealogies of the particular elements that were ultimately selected, such as the possibilities offered by concrete and the cultural biography of the apse shape.Footnote 48
Regardless of the question of dedication, or even of whether the building functioned as a temple at all, its architecture provides rare insight into the aspirations and cultural self-positioning of a secondary city such as Doliche under Roman rule. The discovery fills a significant gap in our understanding of architecture in northern Syria and invites a broader reconsideration of the dynamics of urban development, religious practice, and imperial representation in the eastern provinces.
Acknowledgments
We are grateful to the Turkish Ministry of Culture and Tourism for granting permission to conduct research at Doliche and to the University of Münster for its sustained institutional support of the project. We are particularly indebted to the Gerda Henkel Foundation for generously funding the exploration of the temple in 2023. We also thank the editor and the two anonymous reviewers for their comments and suggestions.
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