Hostname: page-component-6766d58669-nqrmd Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2026-05-21T04:27:45.942Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

When Talk Trumps Text: The Democratizing Effects of Deliberation during Constitution-Making, 1974–2011

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  07 August 2015

TODD A. EISENSTADT ,
A. CARL LeVAN  and
TOFIGH MABOUDI
TODD A. EISENSTADT*
Affiliation:
American University
A. CARL LeVAN*
Affiliation:
American University
TOFIGH MABOUDI*
Affiliation:
American University
*
Todd A. Eisenstadt is Professor in the Department of Government, School of Public Affairs, American University, Washington, DC (eisensta@american.edu).
A. Carl LeVan is Assistant Professor in American University's School of International Service, Washington, DC and affiliated with its Comparative and Regional Studies Program (levan@american.edu; Twitter: @Dev4Security).
Tofigh Maboudi is Ph.D. candidate in the School of Public Affairs, American University, Washington, DC (tofigh.maboudi@american.edu).
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Under what circumstances do new constitutions promote democracy? Between 1974 and 2011, the level of democracy increased in 62 countries following the adoption of a new constitution, but decreased or stayed the same in 70 others. Using data covering all 138 new constitutions in 118 countries during that period, we explain this divergence through empirical tests showing that overall increased participation during the process of making the constitution positively impacts postpromulgation levels of democracy. Then, after disaggregating constitution-making into three stages (drafting, debating, and ratification) we find compelling evidence through robust statistical tests that the degree of citizen participation in the drafting stage has a much greater impact on the resulting regime. This lends support to some core principles of “deliberative” theories of democracy. We conclude that constitutional reformers should focus more on generating public “buy in” at the front end of the constitution-making process, rather than concentrating on ratification and referendums at the “back end” that are unlikely to correct for an “original sin” of limited citizen deliberation during drafting.

Information

Type
Research Article
Information
American Political Science Review , Volume 109 , Issue 3 , August 2015 , pp. 592 - 612
Copyright
Copyright © American Political Science Association 2015 

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

Article purchase

Temporarily unavailable

References

REFERENCES

Alesina, Alberto, Devleeschauwer, Arnaud, Easterly, William, Kurlat, Sergio, and Wacziarg, Romain. 2003. “Fractionalization.” Journal of Economic Growth 8: 155–94.Google Scholar
Avritzer, Leonardo. 2012. “Democracy Beyond Aggregation: the Participatory Dimension of Public Deliberation.” Journal of Public Deliberation 8 (2): 1–20.Google Scholar
Banks, Arthur S., and Wilson, Kenneth A.. 2005. “Cross-National Time-Series Data Archive.” ed. D. International. Jerusalem, Israel.Google Scholar
Bessinger, Mark. 2008. “A New Look at Ethnicity and Democratization.” Journal of Democracy 19 (3): 85–97.Google Scholar
Bratton, Michael, and Van de Walle, Nicolas. 1997. Democratic Experiments in Africa: Regime Transitions in Comparative Perspective. Cambridge, England and New York: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Brown, Nathan J. 2002. Constitutions in a Nonconstitutional world: Arab Basic Laws and the Prospects for Accountable Government. Albany, NY: State University of New York Press.Google Scholar
Bunce, Valerie, and Wolchik, Sharon L.. 2011. Defeating Authoritarian Leaders in Postcommunist Countries. Cambridge, England and New York: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Burke, Edmund. 1999. Reflections on the Revolution in France. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Carey, John M. 2009. “Does It Matter How a Constitution is Created?” In Is Democracy Exportable?, ed. Barany, Z. and Moser, R.. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 155–77.Google Scholar
Carter Center. 2012. “Statement on Tunisia's Constitution Drafting Process.” The Carter Center.Google Scholar
Catt, Helena, 1999. Democracy in Practice. New York: Routledge.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cheibub, Jose Antonio, Elkins, Zachary, and Ginsburg, Tom. 2011. “Latin American Presidentialism in Comparative and Historical Perspective.” Texas Law Review 89: 1707–43.Google Scholar
Collier, Ruth Berins, and Mahoney, James. 1997. “Adding Collective Actors to Collective Outcomes: Labor and Recent Democratization in South America and Southern Europe.” Comparative Politics 29 (3): 285–303.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cook, Traci D., Moro, Leben Nelson, and Lo-Lujo, Onesimo Yabang. 2013. “From a Transitional to a Permanent Constitution: View of Men and Women in South Sudan on Constitution-Making.” Washington, DC: National Democratic Institute for International Affairs.Google Scholar
Coppedge, Michael. 2012. Democratization and Research Methods. Cambridge, England and New York: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Dahl, Robert A. 2001. How Democratic is the American Constitution? New Haven: Yale University Press.Google Scholar
Diamond, Larry. 1994. “Toward Democratic Consolidation.” Joural of Democracy 5 (3): 4–17.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Diamond, Larry, Fukuyama, Francis, Horowitz, Donald, and Plattner, Marc. 2014. “Discussion: Reconsidering the Transition Paradigm.” Journal of Democracy 25 (1): 86–100.Google Scholar
Dryzek, John S. 2000. Deliberative Democracy and Beyond: Liberals, Critics, Contestations. Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Eisenstadt, Todd A. 2004. Courting Democracy in Mexico: Party Strategies and Electoral Institutions. New York: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Elkins, Zachary, Ginsburg, Tom, and Melton, James. 2009. The Endurance of National Constitutions. Cambridge, England and New York: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Ellicott, K., ed. 2011. Countries of the World and their Leaders Yearbook: 2012. Farmington Hills, MI: Gale, Cengage Learning.Google Scholar
Elster, Jon. 1998. “Deliberation and Constitution Making.” In Deliberative democracy, ed. Elster, J.. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press, 97–122.Google Scholar
Elster, Jon. 2012. “The Optimal Design of a Constituent Assembly.” In Collective Wisdom: Principles and Mechanisms, ed. Landemore, H. and Elster, J.. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press, 148–172.Google Scholar
Fariss, Christopher J. 2014. “Respect for Human Rights has Improved Over Time: Modeling the Changing Standard of Accountability.” American Political Science Review 108 (2): 297–318.Google Scholar
Fishkin, James S. 2009. When the People Speak: Deliberative Democracy and Public Consultation. Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Fombad, Charles Manga. 2010. “The Constitution as a Source of Accountability: the Role of Constitutionalism.” Speculum Juris 2: 41–65.Google Scholar
Fox, Gregory H. 2000. “The Right to Political Participation in International Law.” In Democratic Governance and International Law, ed. Fox, G. H. and Roth, B. R.. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press, 48–92.Google Scholar
Fox, Jonathan. 2014. “Social Accountability: What Does the Evidence Really Say?” Washington, DC: World Bank Group.Google Scholar
Franck, Thomas M., and Thiruvengadam, Arun K.. 2010. “Norms of International Law Relating to the Constitution-Making Process.” In Framing the State in Times of Transition: Case Studies in Constitution Making, ed. Miller, L.. Washington, DC: United States Institute of Peace Press, 3–19.Google Scholar
Franklin, James C. 2013. “Repertoires of Contention and Tactical Choice in Latin America, 1981–1995.” Research in Social Movements, Conflict and Change 35: 175–208.Google Scholar
Freedom House. 2015. Freedom in the World: Discarding Democracy: Return to the Iron Fist. New York: Freedom House.Google Scholar
Galston, William A. 2011. “Pluralist Constitutionalism.” Social Philosophy & Policy 28 (1): 228–41.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Garrido, Luis Javier. 1989. “The Crisis of Presidentialismo,” in Cornelius, Wayne A., Gentleman, Judith, and Smith, Peter H., eds. Mexico's Alternative Political Futures. La Jolla: Center for U.S.-Mexican Studies, 417–34.Google Scholar
Ginsburg, Tom, ed. 2012. Comparative Constitutional Design. New York: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Hansen, Roger D. 1971. The Politics of Mexican Development. Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press.Google Scholar
Hatchard, John, Ndulo, Muna, and Slinn, Peter. 2004. Comparative Constitutionalism and Good Governance in the Commonwealth: an Eastern and Southern African Perspective. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Holmes, Stephen. 1988. “Precommitment and the Paradox of Democracy.” In Constitutionalism and Democracy, ed. Slagstad, R. and Elster, J.. New York: Cambridge University Press, 195–240.Google Scholar
Horowitz, Donald. 1985. Ethnic Groups in Conflict. Berkeley: University of California Press.Google Scholar
Horowitz, Donald L. 2013. Constitutional Change and Democracy in Indonesia. Cambridge England and New York: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Hyden, Goran. 2001. “Constitution-making and Democratisation in Africa.” In Constitution-making and Democratisation in Africa, ed. Hyden, G. and Venter, D.. Pretoria, South Africa: Africa Institute of South Africa, 202–220.Google Scholar
Hyden, Goran, and Venter, Denis. 2001. Constitution-making and Democratisation in Africa. Pretoria, South Africa: Africa Institute of South Africa.Google Scholar
LeVan, A. Carl. 2015. Dictators and Democracy in African Development: the Political Economy of Good Governance in Nigeria. New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Levitt, Jeremy I. 2012. Illegal Peace in Africa: An Inquiry into the Legality of Power Sharing with Warlords, Rebels, and Junta. Cambridge, England and New York: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lindberg, Staffan I., ed. 2009. Democratization by Elections: A New Mode of Transition. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press.Google Scholar
Liss, Sheldon B. and Liss, Peggy K.. 1972. In Man, State, and Society in Latin American History. London: Pall Mall Press, 133.Google Scholar
Loveman, Brian. 1993. The Constitution of Tyranny: Regimes of Exception in Spanish America. Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press.Google Scholar
Maboudi, Tofigh. Forthcoming in 2016. Constitution-Making in the Arab Spring Era: Citizen Participation and Constitutional Outcomes. Ph.D. dissertation, American University.Google Scholar
Maboudi, Tofigh, and Nadi, Ghazal P.. 2014. “Crowdsourcing and the Dynamics of Participatory Constitution Making in Egypt.” Presented at the Annual Meeting of the American Political Science Association, Washington, DC.Google Scholar
Mackie, Gerry. 2003. Democracy Defended. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Mansbridge, Jane J., Bohman, James, Chambers, Simone, Christiano, Thomas, and Fung, Archon. 2012. “A Systemic Approach to Deliberative Democracy.” In Deliberative Systems: Deliberative Democracy at the Large Scale, ed. Parkinson, J. and Mansbridge, J. J.. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press, 1–26.Google Scholar
Marshall, Monty, and Jaggers, Keith. 2008. Polity IV Project: Political Regime Characteristics and Transitions, 1800–2008.Google Scholar
Miller, Laurel, and Aucoin, Louis, eds. 2010. Framing the State in Times of Transition: Case Studies in Constitution Making. Washington, DC: United States Institute of Peace Press.Google Scholar
Moehler, Devra C. 2008. Distrusting Democrats: Outcomes of Participatory Constitution Making. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press.Google Scholar
Mutunga, Willy. 2001. “Constitutions, Law and Civil Society: Discourses on the Legitimacy of People's Power.” In Constitutionalism in Africa: Creating Opportunities, Facing Challenges, ed. Oloka-Onyango, J.. Kampala: Fountain Publishers, 128–144.Google Scholar
Negretto, Gabriel L. 2014. Making Constitutions: Presidents, Parties, and Institutional Choice in Latin America. New York: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Norris, Pippa. 2008. Driving Democracy: Do Power-Sharing Institutions Work? Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Papadopoulos, Yannis. 2012. “On the Embeddedness of Deliberative Systems: Why Elitist Innovations Matter More.” In Deliberative Systems: Deliberative Democracy at the Large Scale, ed. Parkinson, J. and Mansbridge, J. J.. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press, 125–150.Google Scholar
Pateman, Carole. 1970. Participation and Democratic Theory. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pateman, Carole. 2012. “Participatory Democracy Revisited.” Perspectives on Politics 10 (1): 7–19.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pemstein, Daniel, Meserve, Stephen A., and Melton, James. 2010. “Democratic Compromise: A Latent Variable Analysis of Ten Measures of Regime Type.” Political Analysis 18 (4): 426–49.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Samuels, K. 2006. “Constitution Building Processes and Democratization: A Discussion of Twelve Case Studies.” Geneva: IDEA.Google Scholar
Stepan, Alfred. 1988. Rethinking Military Politics: Brazil and the Southern Cone. Princeton: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
Teorell, Jan. 2010. Determinants of Democratization: Explaining Regime Change in the World, 1972–2006. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Touchton, Michael, and Wampler, Brian. 2013. “Improving Social Well-Being Through New Democratic Institutions.” Comparative Political Studies.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
United Nations Secretary-General. 2009. “United Nations Assistance to Constitution-making Processes.” New York: United Nations.Google Scholar
Urbinati, Nadia, and Warren, Mark E.. 2008. “The Concept of Representation in Contemporary Democratic Theory.” Annual Review of Political Science 11 (1): 387–412.Google Scholar
Valenzuela, J. Samuel. 1989. “Labor Movements in Transitions to Democracy: A Framework for Analysis.” Comparative Politics 21 (4): 445–72.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Veja . “Documento: A Conferencia Secreta da ESG - A Abertura por Golbery.” Veja, September 19, 1980: 6.Google Scholar
von Beyme, Klaus. 2011. “Representative Democracy and the Populist Temptation.” In The Future of Representative Democracy, ed. Alonso, S., Keane, J., Merkel, W. and Fotou, M.. Cambridge, England and New York: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Wampler, Brian. 2012. “Participation, Representation, and Social Justice: Using Participatory Governance to Transform Representative Democracy.” Polity 44: 666–82.Google Scholar
Widner, Jennifer A. 2004. “Constitution Writing and Conflict Resolution Dataset Parts 1 and 2.” Princeton, NJ.Google Scholar
Widner, Jennifer A. 2008. “Constitution Drafting in Post-Conflict States Symposium.” William and Mary Law Review 49: 1513–41.Google Scholar
William, S. Hein, & Company. 2012. “Hein online.” Buffalo, NY: W.S. Hein.Google Scholar
Wing, Susanna D. 2008. Constructing Democracy in Transitioning Societies of Africa: Constitutionalism and Deliberation in Mali. New York: Palgrave Macmillan.Google Scholar
World Bank. 2013. “World Development Indicators.” W. Bank. Washington, DC.Google Scholar
Submit a response

Comments

No Comments have been published for this article.