Individual and societal responses to trauma

In words that still hold true today, Herman wrote in the introduction to her powerful work: ‘The ordinary response to atrocities is to banish them from consciousness’.^{Reference Herman5} Psychiatry and trauma have a long and complicated relationship. Trauma has had an often ‘underground’ history, resurfacing and then disappearing at various points depending on the sociopolitical climate.^{Reference van der Kolk, Herron and Hostetler7} As far back as 1919 Janet recognised that the survivors of trauma ‘are unable to make the recital which we call narrative memory, and yet they remain confronted by [the] difficult situation’ (Janet 1919: see van der Kolk et al ^{Reference van der Kolk, Hopper and Osterman8}). Years later Kardiner built on Janet's studies of ‘hysteria’ in women to formulate the outlines of traumatic syndromes in male combat veterans (Kardiner 1941: see van der Kolk et al ^{Reference van der Kolk, Hopper and Osterman8}). Contemporary psychiatrists such as Herman and van der Kolk have formulated and communicated clearly and conclusively how traumatic life experiences have far-reaching effects on the mind and body. This has paved the way for an understanding of the neurobiological effects of trauma on the brain, endocrine and immune systems, including dysregulation of the hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal axis and sympathetic nervous hyperarousal.^{Reference Kendall-Tackett9} Thanks to Felitti and colleagues’ large and important study on adverse childhood experiences (ACEs), there are now robust and undeniable links between exposure to trauma and cardiovascular and respiratory disease, cancer, obesity, chronic pain and gastrointestinal illness.^{Reference Kendall-Tackett9,Reference Felitti, Anda, Nordenberg, Williamson, Spitz and Edwards10} The intergenerational effects of trauma are also being increasingly understood. It has recently been found that the children of mothers who were Holocaust survivors and suffered post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) have increased glucocorticoid sensitivity.^{Reference Lehrner, Bierer, Passarelli, Pratchett, Flory and Bader11}

Herman, more than 20 years ago, identified the syndrome of complex post-traumatic stress disorder (CPTSD).^{Reference Herman12} Yet it has taken tireless work and campaigning from clinicians, researchers and people with lived experience for it to now be included in ICD-11.^{Reference Karatzias, Cloitre, Maercker, Kazlauskas, Shevlin and Hyland13} The operationalisation and recognition of the diagnosis is a significant step towards research and treatments which acknowledge that prolonged and repeated trauma profoundly affects the sense of self, affective stability and relationships. Indeed, some studies have shown that CPTSD may be even more common that PTSD,^{Reference Karatzias, Cloitre, Maercker, Kazlauskas, Shevlin and Hyland13} and deserves specialist attention, both within services and also in the educational curricula for future psychiatrists.

Facing a culture of disbelief

The article by Waterman and colleagues avoids the scapegoating of refugees^{Reference Greenslade14} and the ‘denial, repression and dissociation’ of trauma that Herman identified operating on both societal and individual levels.^{Reference Herman5} Refugees and asylum seekers who are survivors of trauma encounter multiple challenges, which are described in the article. First, there is the trauma itself, which is known to cause ‘disintegration of experience’ and loss of narrative.^{Reference van der Kolk, Hopper and Osterman8} Echoing Janet's work, Herman describes how ‘people who have survived atrocities often tell their stories in a highly emotional, contradictory and fragmented manner’.^{Reference Herman5} Yet the processes of accessing healthcare or asylum demand that survivors tell their story repeatedly, and they are received by a ‘culture of disbelief’ and face both testimonial and hermeneutical injustice.^{2,Reference Eckenwiler and Richards15} Individuals who are already hypervigilant to threat must navigate health services that may share information with the Home Office, mistakenly charge them for treatment and inadvertently re-victimise them with unjust, uneducated and sometimes perverse decisions.² Psychiatrist Sandra Bloom states: ‘because of complex interactions between traumatized clients, stressed staff, pressured organizations, and a social and economic environment that is frequently hostile to the aims of recovery, our systems frequently recapitulate the very experiences that have proven to be so toxic for the people we are supposed to treat’.^{Reference Bloom16}

Trauma-informed and human rights-based care

Trauma-informed care can provide some framework for individuals and health services and is premised on a fundamental shift from thinking ‘What's wrong with you?’ to ‘What happened to you?’.^{Reference Sweeney, Filson, Kennedy, Collinson and Gillard17} Such approaches seek to rebuild trust, create safe environments, empower and to avoid re-traumatisation.^{Reference Sweeney, Filson, Kennedy, Collinson and Gillard17}

After reading this Praxis article I would urge trainees to familiarise themselves with the principles of trauma-informed care and to think how these might be applied in their organisations. Sweeney and colleagues’ article in BJPsych Advances is an extremely helpful summary.^{Reference Sweeney, Filson, Kennedy, Collinson and Gillard17} We must also remember that trauma does not occur only in wars or in other countries; experiences of torture and childhood adversity are all too common, as highlighted by the original study of ACEs in the USA.^{Reference Felitti, Anda, Nordenberg, Williamson, Spitz and Edwards10} Research in the UK has found a similarly high frequency, with 47% of almost 4000 participants reporting having experienced at least one ACE.^{Reference Bellis, Hughes, Leckenby, Perkins and Lowey18} The pivotal works of Herman^{Reference Herman5} and van der Kolk^{Reference van der Kolk19} provide a compelling, compassionate and eloquent narrative on a subject that is so often unspeakable. Practical resources and links to specialist agencies for asylum seekers and refugees can be found as an online supplement to the Praxis article.^{Reference Waterman, Katona and Katona1} Trainees may be interested to explore the various communities of healthcare professionals who advocate for human rights-based approaches to healthcare such as Medact (www.medact.org/project/migration-health), Docs Not Cops (www.docsnotcops.co.uk) and the Twitter hashtag #patientsnotpassports. Poetry and storytelling can also communicate and transform, with the potential to both educate and liberate from shame and secrecy.

British-Somali poet Warsan Shire writes in her poem ‘Home’:

I hope that Waterman and colleagues’ article offers trainees a framework for thinking about providing safe and compassionate care to asylum seekers, refugees and undocumented migrants. I thank the authors for their perseverance in bringing together complex legislation and issues of mental and physical healthcare in such a fine example of what we are seeking in Praxis articles. The article and the work of Herman, van der Kolk and the principles of trauma-informed care demand us as clinicians, as fellow humans, to bear witness and to empower survivors. We must strive to avoid re-traumatisation and rejection, despite the current hostile environment in which we live and practice.