Hostname: page-component-76fb5796d-5g6vh Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-04-25T11:35:34.274Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

A multi-proxy paleolimnological reconstruction of Holocene climate conditions in the Great Basin, United States

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  20 January 2017

Scott A. Reinemann ,
David F. Porinchu ,
Amy M. Bloom ,
Bryan G. Mark  and
Jason E. Box
Scott A. Reinemann*
Affiliation:
Department of Geography, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH 43210, USA
David F. Porinchu
Affiliation:
Department of Geography, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH 43210, USA
Amy M. Bloom
Affiliation:
Department of Geography–Geology, Illinois State University, Normal, IL 61790-4400, USA
Bryan G. Mark
Affiliation:
Department of Geography, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH 43210, USA
Jason E. Box
Affiliation:
Department of Geography, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH 43210, USA
*
⁎Corresponding author. Fax: +1 614 292 6213. E-mail address:reinemann.2@osu.edu (S.A. Reinemann).
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

A sediment core spanning ∼ 7000 cal yr BP recovered from Stella Lake, a small sub-alpine lake located in Great Basin National Park, Nevada, was analyzed for subfossil chironomids (non-biting midges), diatoms, and organic content (estimated by loss-on-ignition (LOI)). Subfossil chironomid analysis indicates that Stella Lake was characterized by a warm, middle Holocene, followed by a cool “Neoglacial” period, with the last two millennia characterized by a return to warmer conditions. Throughout the majority of the core the Stella Lake diatom-community composition is dominated by small, periphytic taxa which are suggestive of shallow, cool, alkaline, oligotrophic waters with extensive seasonal ice cover. A reconstruction of mean July air temperature (MJAT) was developed by applying a midge-based inference model for MJAT (two-component WA-PLS) consisting of 79 lakes and 54 midge taxa (rjack2 = 0.55, RMSEP = 0.9°C). Comparison of the chironomid-inferred temperature record to existing regional paleoclimate reconstructions suggests that the midge-inferred temperatures correspond well to regional patterns. This multi-proxy record provides valuable insight into regional Holocene climate and environmental conditions by providing a quantitative reconstruction of peak Holocene warmth and aquatic ecosystem response to these changes in the Great Basin, a region projected to experience increased aridity and higher temperatures.

Keywords

Climate changeChironomidsDiatomsPaleolimnologyAlpinePaleoclimatologyHoloceneTemperaturewestern United StatesGreat BasinGreat Basin National Park
Type
Research Article
Information
Quaternary Research , Volume 72 , Issue 3 , November 2009 , pp. 347 - 358
Copyright
University of Washington

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Adams, D.K., and Comrie, A.C. The North American monsoon. Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society 78, (1997). 2197–2213.2.0.CO;2>CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Armour, J., Fawcett, P.J., and Geissman, J.W. 15 k.y. paleoclimatic and glacial record from northern New Mexico. Geology 30, (2002). 723–726.Google Scholar
Barnett, T.P., and Pierce, D.W. When will Lake Mead go dry?. Water Resources Research 44, (2008). W03201 http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/2007WR006704Google Scholar
Barnett, T.P., Pierce, D.W., Hidalgo, H.G., Bonfils, C., Santer, B.D., Das, T., Bala, G., Wood, A.W., Nozawa, T., Mirin, A.A., Cayan, D.R., and Dettinger, M.D. Human-induced changes in the hydrology of the western United States. Science 319, (2008). 1080–1083.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bartlein, P.J., Anderson, K.H., Anderson, P.M., Edwards, M.E., Mock, C.J., Thompson, R.S., Webb, R.S., and Whitlock, C. Paleoclimate simulations for North America over the past 21,000 years: features of the simulated climate and comparisons with paleoenvironmental data. Quaternary Science Reviews 17, (1998). 549–585.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Battarbee, R.W., Jones, V.J., Flower, R.J., Cameron, N.G., Bennion, H., Carvalho, L., and Juggins, S. Diatoms. Smol, J.P., Birks, H.J.B., and Last, W.M. Tracking Environmental Change Using Lake Sediments. Vol. 3, Terrestrial, Algal, and Siliceous Indicators. (2001). Kluwer Academic, Dordrecht. 155–202.Google Scholar
Benson, L., Kashgarian, M., Rye, R., Lund, S., Paillet, F., Smoot, J., Kester, C., Mensing, S., Meko, D., and Lindstrom, S. Holocene multidecadal and multicentennial droughts affecting Northern California and Nevada. Quaternary Science Reviews 21, (2002). 659–682.Google Scholar
Birks, H.J.B. D.G. Frey & E.S. Deevey review #1 — Numerical tools in palaeolimnology — progress, potentialities, and problems. Journal of Paleolimnology 20, (1998). 307–332.Google Scholar
Bloom, A.M., (2006). A paleolimnological investigation of climatic and hydrological conditions during the late Pleistocene and Holocene in the Sierra Nevada, California, USA. Ph.D. Dissertation. University of Utah, Department of Geography, Salt Lake City.Google Scholar
Bloom, A.M., Moser, K.A., Porinchu, D.F., and MacDonald, G.M. Diatom–inference models for surface–water temperature and salinity developed from a 57-lake calibration set from the Sierra Nevada, California, USA. Journal of Paleolimnology 29, (2003). 235–255.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bradley, R.S., Hughes, M.K., and Diaz, H.F. Climate in Medieval time. Science 302, (2003). 404–405.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Brooks, S.J., and Birks, H.J.B. Chironomid-inferred air temperatures from Lateglacial and Holocene sites in north-west Europe: progress and problems. Quaternary Science Reviews 20, (2001). 1723–1741.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Brooks, S.J., Langdon, P.G., and Heiri, O. The Identification and Use of Palaearctic Chironomidae Larvae in Palaeoecology. QRA Technical Guide No. 10. (2007). Quaternary Research Association, London.Google Scholar
Brown, D.P., and Comrie, A.C. A winter precipitation ‘dipole’ in the western United States associated with multidecadal ENSO variability. Geophysical Research Letters 31, (2004). L09203 http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/2003GL018726CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cayan, D.R., Kammerdiener, S.A., Dettinger, M.D., Caprio, J.M., and Peterson, D.H. Changes in the onset of spring in the western United States. Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society 82, (2001). 399–415.Google Scholar
Cole, J.E., Overpeck, J.T., and Cook, E.R. Multiyear La Niña events and persistent drought in the contiguous United States. Geophysical Research Letters 1647 (2002). 29 http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/2001GL013561Google Scholar
Crowley, T.J. Causes of climate change over the past 1000 years. Science 289, (2000). 270–277.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cumming, B.F., Wilson, S.E., Hall, R.J., and Smol, J.P. Diatoms from British Columbia (Canada) Lakes and Their Relationship to Salinity, Nutrients and other Limnological Variables. (1995). J. Cramer, Berlin.Google Scholar
Currey, D.R. Coastal geomorphology of Great Salt Lake and vicinity. Gwynn, J.W. Great Salt Lake: A Scientific, Historical, and Economic Overview. (1980). Utah Geological and Mineral Survey, Salt Lake City. 69–82.Google Scholar
Deacon, J.E., Williams, A.E., Williams, C.D., and Williams, J.E. Fueling population growth in Las Vegas: how large-scale groundwater withdrawal could burn regional biodiversity. Bioscience 57, (2007). 688–698.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Denniston, R.F., Asmerom, Y., Polyak, V., Dorale, J.A., Carpenter, S.J., Trodick, C., Hoye, B., and Gonzalez, L.A. Synchronous millennial-scale climatic changes in the Great Basin and the North Atlantic during the last interglacial. Geology 35, (2007). 619–622.Google Scholar
Diaz, H.F., and Bradley, R.S. Temperature variations during the last century at high elevation sites. Climatic Change 36, (1997). 253–279.Google Scholar
Dettinger, M.D., Cayan, D.R., Diaz, H.F., and Meko, D.M. North–south precipitation patterns in western North America on interannual-to-decadal timescales. Journal of Climate 11, (1998). 3095–3111.Google Scholar
Diffenbaugh, N.S., Giorgi, F., and Pal, J.S. Climate change hotspots in the United States. Geophysical Research Letters 35, (2008). Google Scholar
Diffenbaugh, N.S., and Sloan, L.C. Mid-Holocene orbital forcing of regional-scale climate: a case study of western North America using a high-resolution RCM. Journal of Climate 17, (2004). 2927–2937.Google Scholar
Douglas, M.S.V., and Smol, J.P Limnology of high arctic ponds (Cape Herschel, Ellesmere Island, N.W.T.). Archiv fur Hydrobiologie 131, (1994). 401–434.Google Scholar
Douglas, M.S.V., and Smol, J.P. Freshwater diatoms as indicators of environmental change in the High Arctic. Stoermer, E.F., and Smol, J.P. The Diatoms: Application for the Environmental and Earth Sciences. (1999). Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. 227–244.Google Scholar
Eaton, G.P. The Basin and Range province — origin and tectonic significance. Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences 10, (1982). 409–440.Google Scholar
Edwards, T.L., Crucifix, M., and Harrison, S.P. Using the past to constrain the future: how the palaeorecord can improve estimates of global warming. Progress in Physical Geography 31, (2007). 481–500.Google Scholar
Feng, X.H., and Epstein, S. Climatic implications of an 8000-year hydrogen isotope time-series from bristlecone pine trees. Science 265, (1994). 1079–1081.Google Scholar
Grayson, D.K. Mammalian responses to Middle Holocene climatic change in the Great Basin of the western United States. Journal of Biogeography 27, (2000). 181–192.Google Scholar
Harrison, S.P., Kutzbach, J.E., Liu, Z., Bartlein, P.J., Otto-Bliesner, B., Muhs, D., Prentice, C., and Thompson, R.S. Mid-Holocene climates of the Americas: a dynamical response to changed seasonality. Climate Dynamics 20, (2003). 663–688.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hay, M.B., Michelutti, N., and Smol, J.P. Ecological patterns of diatom assemblages from Mackenzie Delta lakes, Northwest Territories, Canada. Canadian Journal of Botany 78, (2000). 19–33.Google Scholar
Heiri, O., and Lotter, A.F. Effect of low count sums on quantitative environmental reconstructions: an example using subfossil chironomids. Journal of Paleolimnology 26, (2001). 343–350.Google Scholar
Heiri, O., Lotter, A.F., and Lemcke, G. Loss on ignition as a method for estimating organic and carbonate content in sediments: reproducibility and comparability of results. Journal of Paleolimnology 25, (2001). 101–110.Google Scholar
Hill, M.O. Diversity and evenness — unifying notation and its conaequencse. Ecology 54, (1973). 427–432.Google Scholar
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) Climate change 2007: the physical science basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Fourth Assessment. Solomon, S., Qin, D., Manning, M., Chen, Z., Marquis, M., Averyt, K.B., Tignor, M., and Miller, H.L. Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. (2007). Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom.Google Scholar
Krammer, K., and Lange-Bertalot, H. Bacillariophyceae. Ettl, H., Gerloff, J., Heynig, H., and Mollenhauer, D. Süßwasserflora von Mitteleuropa, Band 2 (1–4). (1986–1991). Gustav Fisher Verlag, Stuttgart/Jena.Google Scholar
Knowles, N., Dettinger, M.D., and Cayan, D.R. Trends in snowfall versus rainfall in the western United States. Journal of Climate 19, (2006). 4545–4559.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lamarche, V.C., (1973). Holocene Climatic variations inferred from treeline fluctuations in the White Mountains, California. Quaternary Research 3, 632–660.Google Scholar
Lamarche, V.C. Paleoclimatic inferences from long tree-ring records. Science 183, (1974). 1043–1048.Google Scholar
Larocque, I., and Hall, R.I. Chironomids as quantitative indicators of mean July air temperature: validation by comparison with century-long meteorological records from northern Sweden. Journal of Paleolimnology 29, (2003). 475–493.Google Scholar
Larocque, I., Grosjean, M., Heiri, O., Bigler, C., and Blass, A. Comparison between chironomid-inferred July temperatures and meteorological data AD 1850–2001 from varved Lake Silvaplana, Switzerland. Journal of Paleolimnology 41, (2009). 329–342.Google Scholar
Lindström, S. Submerged tree stumps as indicators of middle Holocene aridity in the Lake Tahoe Basin. Journal of California and Great Basin Anthropology 12, (1990). 146–157.Google Scholar
Lotter, A.F., and Bigler, C. Do diatoms in the Swiss Alps reflect the length of ice-cover?. Aquatic Sciences 62, (2000). 125–141.Google Scholar
MacDonald, G.M. Severe and sustained drought in southern California and the West: present conditions and insights from the past on causes and impacts. Quaternary International 173, (2007). 87–100.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
MacDonald, G.M., Moser, K.A., Bloom, A.M., Porinchu, D.F., Potito, A.P., Wolfe, B.B., Edwards, T.W.D., Petel, A., Orme, A.R., and Orme, A.J. Evidence of temperature depression and hydrological variations in the eastern Sierra Nevada during the Younger Dryas stade. Quaternary Research 70, (2008). 131–140.Google Scholar
Madsen, D.B., Rhode, D., Grayson, D.K., Broughton, J.M., Livingston, S.D., Hunt, J., Quade, J., Schmitt, D.N., and Shaver, M.W. Late Quaternary environmental change in the Bonneville basin, western USA. Palaeogeography Palaeoclimatology Palaeoecology 167, (2001). 243–271.Google Scholar
Menounos, B., Clague, J.J., Osborn, G., Luckman, B.H., Lakeman, T.R., and Minkus, R. Western Canadian glaciers advance in concert with climate change circa 4.2 ka. Geophysical Research Letters 35, (2008). L07501 http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/2008GL033172CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mensing, S.A., Benson, L.V., Kashgarian, M., and Lund, S. A Holocene pollen record of persistent droughts from Pyramid Lake, Nevada, USA. Quaternary Research 62, (2004). 29–38.Google Scholar
Mensing, S., Smith, J., Norman, K.B, and Allan, M. Extended drought in the Great Basin of western North America in the last two millenia reconstructed from pollen records. Quaternary International 188, (2008). 79–89.Google Scholar
Metcalfe, S.E., O'Hara, S.L., Caballero, M., and Davies, S.J. Records of Late Pleistocene–Holocene climatic change in Mexico — a review. Quaternary Science Reviews 19, (2000). 699–721.Google Scholar
Millet, L., Arnaud, F., Heiri, O., Magny, M., Verneaux, V., and Desmet, M. Late-Holocene summer temperature reconstruction from chironomid assemblages of Lake Anterne, northern French Alps. Holocene 19, (2009). 317–328.Google Scholar
Mock, C.J., and Brunelle-Daines, A.R. A modern analogue of western United States summer palaeoclimate at 6000 years before present. Holocene 9, (1999). 541–545.Google Scholar
Moy, C.M., Seltzer, G.O., Rodbell, D.T., and Anderson, D.M. Variability of El Nino/southern oscillation activity at millennial timescales during the Holocene epoch. Nature 420, (2002). 162–165.Google Scholar
Pepin, N.C., and Lundquist, J.D. Temperature trends at high elevations: patterns across the globe. Geophysical Research Letters 35, (2008). L14701 http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/2008GL034026CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Porinchu, D.F., MacDonald, G.M., Bloom, A.M., and Moser, K.A. The modern distribution of chironomid sub-fossils (Insecta: Diptera) in the Sierra Nevada, California: potential for paleoclimatic reconstructions. Journal of Paleolimnology 28, (2002). 355–375.Google Scholar
Porinchu, D.F., MacDonald, G.M., Bloom, A.M., and Moser, K.A. Late Pleistocene and early Holocene climate and limnological changes in the Sierra Nevada, California, USA inferred from midges (Insecta: Diptera: Chironomidae). Palaeogeography Palaeoclimatology Palaeoecology 198, (2003). 403–422.Google Scholar
Porinchu, D.F., Moser, K.A., and Munroe, J.S. Development of a midge-based summer surface water temperature inference model for the great basin of the western united states. Arctic Antarctic and Alpine Research 39, (2007). 566–577.Google Scholar
Porinchu, D. F., Reinemann, S., Mark, B. G., Box, J. E., and Rolland, N. under review Application of a midge-based inference model for air temperature reveals evidence of late-20th century warming in sub-alpine lakes in the central Great Basin, United States. Submitted to Quaternary International (11/2008).Google Scholar
Porter, S.C., and Denton, G.H. Chronology of Neoglaciation in North American Cordillera. American Journal of Science 265, (1967). 177–210.Google Scholar
Potito, A.P., Porinchu, D.F., MacDonald, G.M., and Moser, K.A. A late Quaternary chironomid-inferred temperature record from the Sierra Nevada, Califomia, with connections to northeast Pacific sea surface temperatures. Quaternary Research 66, (2006). 356–363.Google Scholar
Prather, C., and Hickman, M. History of a presently slightly acidic lake in northeastern Alberta, Canada as determined through analysis of the diatom record. Journal of Paleolimnology 24, (2000). 183–198.Google Scholar
Prentice, I.C. Multidimensional scaling as a research tool in Quaternary palynology: a review of theory and methods. Revue of Palaeobotany and Palynology 31, (1980). 71–104.Google Scholar
Quinlan, R., and Smol, J.P. Setting minimum head capsule abundance and taxa deletion criteria in chironomid-based inference models. Journal of Paleolimnology 26, (2001). 327–342.Google Scholar
Redmond, K.T., and Koch, R.W. Surface climate and streamflow variability in the western United-States and their relationship to larege-scale circulation indexes. Water Resources Research 27, (1991). 2381–2399.Google Scholar
Reimer, P.J., Baillie, M.G.L., Bard, E., Bayliss, A., Beck, J.W., Bertrand, C.J.H., Blackwell, P.G., Buck, C.E., Burr, G.S., Cutler, K.B., Damon, P.E., Edwards, R.L., Fairbanks, R.G., Friedrich, M., Guilderson, T.P., Hogg, A.G., Hughen, K.A., Kromer, B., McCormac, G., Manning, S., Ramsey, C.B., Reimer, R.W., Remmele, S., Southon, J.R., Stuiver, M., Talamo, S., Taylor, F.W., van der Plicht, J., and Weyhenmeyer, C.E. IntCal04 terrestrial radiocarbon age calibration, 0–26 cal kyr BP. Radiocarbon 46, (2004). 1029–1058.Google Scholar
Seager, R., Ting, M.F., Held, I., Kushnir, Y., Lu, J., Vecchi, G., Huang, H.P., Harnik, N., Leetmaa, A., Lau, N.C., Li, C.H., Velez, J., and Naik, N. Model projections of an imminent transition to a more arid climate in southwestern North America. Science 316, (2007). 1181–1184.Google Scholar
Shin, S.I., Sardeshmukh, P.D., Webb, R.S., Oglesby, R.J., and Barsugli, J.J. Understanding the mid-Holocene climate. Journal of Climate 19, (2006). 2801–2817.Google Scholar
Smith, F.A., and Betancourt, J.L. Predicting woodrat (Neotoma) responses to anthropogenic warming from studies of the palaeomidden record. Journal of Biogeography 33, (2006). 2061–2076.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Smith, T.M., and Reynolds, R.W. A global merged land–air–sea surface temperature reconstruction based on historical observations (1880–1997). Journal of Climate 18, (2005). 2021–2036.Google Scholar
Smol, J.P. Paleoclimate proxy data from freshwater arctic diatoms. Vereinigung für Theoretische und Andewandte Limnologie 23, (1988). 837–844.Google Scholar
Stine, S. Extreme and persistent drought in California and Patagonia during the Medieval time. Nature 369, (1994). 546–549.Google Scholar
Tausch, R.J., Nowak, C.L., and Mensing, S.A. Climate change and associated vegetation dynamics during the Holocene: the paleoecological record. Chambers, J.C., Miller, J.R., and MacMahon, J.A. Great Basin Riparian Areas: Ecology, Management, and Restoration. The Science and Practice of Ecological Restoration. (2004). Island Press, Washington, DC. 24–48.Google Scholar
Telford, R.J., Heegaard, E., and Birks, H.J.B. The intercept is a poor estimate of a calibrated radiocarbon age. Holocene 14, (2004). 296–298.Google Scholar
ter Braak, C.J.F., and Šmilauer, P. (2002). Canoco Reference manual and CanoDraw for Windows User's Guide.: Software for Canonical Community Ordination (version 4.5). — Microcomputer Power, Ithaca, New York.Google Scholar
Thompson, R.S. Late Quaternary environments in Ruby Valley, Nevada. Quaternary Research 37, (1992). 1–15.Google Scholar
Thompson, R.S., and Anderson, K.H. Biomes of western North America at 18,000, 6000 and 0 14C yr BP reconstructed from pollen and packrat midden data. Journal of Biogeography 27, (2000). 555–584.Google Scholar
Thompson, R.S., Whitlock, C., Bartlein, P.J., Harrison, S.P., and Spaulding, W.G. Climatic changes in the western United States since 18,000 yr B.P. Wright, H.E., Kutzbach, T., Webb, T.I., Ruddiman, W.F., Street-Perrott, F.A., and Bartlein, P.J. Global Climates Since the Last Glacial Maximum. (1993). University of Minnesota Press, Minneapolis. 468–513.Google Scholar
Tomback, D.F., and Resler, L.M. Invasive pathogens at alpine treeline: consequences for treeline dynamics. Physical Geography 28, (2007). 397–418.Google Scholar
U.S. Census Bureau, (2007). Table 2: cumulative estimates of population change for the United States, regions, states, and Puerto Rico and region and state rankings.: April 1, 2000 to July 1, 2007 (NST-EST2007-02), http:// www.census.gov.Google Scholar
Valero-Garces, B.L., Laird, K.R., Fritz, S.C., Kelts, K., Ito, E., and Grimm, E.C. Holocene climate in the Northern Great Plains inferred from sediment stratigraphy, stable isotopes, carbonate geochemistry, diatoms, and pollen at Moon Lake, North Dakota. Quaternary Research 48, (1997). 359–369.Google Scholar
Velle, G., Brooks, S.J., Birks, H.J.B., and Willassen, E. Chironomids as a tool for inferring Holocene climate: an assessment based on six sites in southern Scandinavia. Quaternary Science Reviews 24, (2005). 1429–1462.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Viau, A.E., Gajewski, K., Fines, P., Atkinson, D.E., and Sawada, M.C. Widespread evidence of 1500 yr climate variability in North America during the past 14 000 yr. Geology 30, (2002). 455–458.Google Scholar
Walker, I.R. Midges: chironomids and related diptera. Smol, J.P., Birks, H.J.B., and Last, W.M. Tracking Environmental Change Using Lake Sediments. Vol. 4, Zoological Indicators. (2001). Kluwer Academic, Dordrecht.Google Scholar
Westerling, A.L., Gershunov, A., Brown, T.J., Cayan, D.R., and Dettinger, M.D. Climate and wildfire in the western United States. Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society 84, (2003). 595–604.Google Scholar
Whitebread, D.H. Mines, N.B.o. Geologic Map of the Wheeler Peak and Garrison Quadrangles, Nevada and Utah. (1969). U.S. Geological Survey, Washington, D.C..Google Scholar
Wiederholm, T. Chironomidae of the Holarctic Region: Keys and Diagnoses. (1983). Entomologica scandinavica, Lund, Sweden.Google Scholar
Wise, E.A., (2009). Climatic response of the intermountain west to the Pacific Northwest–Desert Southwest dipole. Abstracts, 2009 PACLIM Workshop, April 2009.Google Scholar
WRCC, (2008). Western Regional Climate Center. http://www.wrcc.dri.edu/.Google Scholar