Hostname: page-component-77f85d65b8-hzqq2 Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2026-04-18T03:16:45.711Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Development, validation and utilisation of food-frequency questionnaires – a review

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  02 January 2007

Janet Cade ,
Rachel Thompson ,
Victoria Burley  and
Daniel Warm
Janet Cade*
Affiliation:
Nutrition Epidemiology Group, Division of Public Health, Nuffield Institute for Health, 71–75 Clarendon Road, University of Leeds, Leeds LS2 9PL, UK
Rachel Thompson
Affiliation:
Institute of Human Nutrition, Southampton General Hospital, University of Southampton, Southampton SO16 6YD, UK
Victoria Burley
Affiliation:
Nutrition Epidemiology Group, Division of Public Health, Nuffield Institute for Health, 71–75 Clarendon Road, University of Leeds, Leeds LS2 9PL, UK
Daniel Warm
Affiliation:
Institute of Human Nutrition, Southampton General Hospital, University of Southampton, Southampton SO16 6YD, UK
*
*Corresponding author: Email j.e.cade@leeds.ac.uk
Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Core share and HTML view are not available for this content. However, as you have access to this content, a full PDF is available via the 'Save PDF' action button.
Objective:

The purpose of this review is to provide guidance on the development, validation and use of food-frequency questionnaires (FFQs) for different study designs. It does not include any recommendations about the most appropriate method for dietary assessment (e.g. food-frequency questionnaire versus weighed record).

Methods:

A comprehensive search of electronic databases was carried out for publications from 1980 to 1999. Findings from the review were then commented upon and added to by a group of international experts.

Results:

Recommendations have been developed to aid in the design, validation and use of FFQs. Specific details of each of these areas are discussed in the text.

Conclusions:

FFQs are being used in a variety of ways and different study designs. There is no gold standard for directly assessing the validity of FFQs. Nevertheless, the outcome of this review should help those wishing to develop or adapt an FFQ to validate it for its intended use.

Keywords

Food-frequency questionnaireReviewValidationMethod development

Information

Type
Research Article
Information
Public Health Nutrition , Volume 5 , Issue 4 , August 2002 , pp. 567 - 587
Copyright
Copyright © CABI Publishing 2002

References

1Margetts, BM, Nelson, M. Design Concepts in Nutrition Epidemiology. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1997.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
2International Life Sciences Institute (ILSI). Present Knowledge in Nutrition. Washington, DC: ILSI Press, 1996.Google Scholar
3Block, G, Hartman, AM, Dresser, CM, Carroll, MD, Gannon, J, Gardner, L. A data-based approach to diet questionnaire design and testing. Am. J. Epidemiol. 1986; 124: 453–69.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
4Willett, WC, Reynolds, RD, Cottrell-Hoehner, S, Sampson, L, Browne, ML. Validation of a semi-quantitative food frequency questionnaire: comparison with a 1-year diet record. J. Am. Diet. Assoc. 1987; 87: 43–7.Google Scholar
5Kristal, AR, Feng, Z, Coates, RJ, Oberman, A, George, V. Associations of race/ethnicity, education, and dietary intervention with the validity and reliability of a food frequency questionnaire: the Women's Health Trial Feasibility Study in Minority Populations [published erratum appears in Am. J. Epidemiol. 1998; 148(8): 820] [see comments]. Am. J. Epidemiol. 1997; 146: 856–69.Google Scholar
6Wirfalt, AK, Jeffery, RW, Elmer, PJ. Comparison of food frequency questionnaires: the reduced Block and Willett questionnaires differ in ranking on nutrient intakes [see comments]. Am. J. Epidemiol. 1998; 148: 1148–56.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
7Lemaitre, RN, King, IB, Patterson, RE, Psaty, BM, Kestin, M, Heckbert, SR. Assessment of trans-fatty acid intake with a food frequency questionnaire and validation with adipose tissue levels of trans-fatty acids. Am. J. Epidemiol. 1998; 148: 1085–93.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
8Patterson, RE, Kristal, AR, Levy, L, McLerran, D, White, E. Validity of methods used to assess vitamin and mineral supplement use. Am. J. Epidemiol. 1998; 148: 643–9.Google Scholar
9Riboli, E, Toniolo, P, Kaaks, R, Shore, RE, Casagrande, C, Pasternack, BS. Reproducibility of a food frequency questionnaire used in the New York University Women's Health Study: effect of self-selection by study subjects. Eur. J. Clin. Nutr. 1997; 51: 437–42.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
10Shannon, J, Kristal, AR, Curry, SJ, Beresford, SA. Application of a behavioral approach to measuring dietary change: the fat- and fiber-related diet behavior questionnaire. Cancer Epidemiol. Biomark. Prev. 1997; 6: 355–61.Google ScholarPubMed
11Martin, LJ, Lockwood, GA, Kristal, AR, Kriukov, V, Greenberg, C, Shatuck, AL, et al. Assessment of a food frequency questionnaire as a screening tool for low fat intakes. Control. Clin. Trials 1997; 18: 241–50.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
12Marshall, JR, Lanza, E, Bloch, A, Caan, B, Caggiula, A, Quandt, S, et al. Indexes of food and nutrient intakes as predictors of serum concentrations of nutrients: the problem of inadequate discriminant validity. The Polyp Prevention Trial Study Group. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 1997; 65: 1269S–74S.Google Scholar
13Baranowski, T, Smith, M, Baranowski, J, Wang, DT, Doyle, C, Lin, LS, et al. Low validity of a seven-item fruit and vegetable food frequency questionnaire among third-grade students. J. Am. Diet. Assoc. 1997; 97: 66–8.Google Scholar
14Hartman, AM, Block, G, Chan, W, Williams, J, McAdams, M, Banks, WL Jr, et al. Reproducibility of a self-administered diet history questionnaire administered three times over three different seasons. Nutr. Cancer 1996; 25: 305–15.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
15Bittoni, MA, Wilkins, JR III. Assessment of the reliability of a diet history questionnaire. Nutr. Cancer 1994; 21: 143–55.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
16Brown, JL, Griebler, R. Reliability of a short and long version of the Block food frequency form for assessing changes in calcium intake. J. Am. Diet. Assoc. 1993; 93: 784–9.Google Scholar
17Block, G, Hartman, AM, Naughton, D. A reduced dietary questionnaire: development and validation. Epidemiology 1990; 1: 58–64.Google Scholar
18Tucker, KL, Bianchi, LA, Maras, J, Bermudez, OI. Adaptation of a food frequency questionnaire to assess diets of Puerto Rican and non-Hispanic adults. Am. J. Epidemiol. 1998; 148: 507–18.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
19Eck, LH, Klesges, LM, Klesges, RC. Precision and estimated accuracy of two short-term food frequency questionnaires compared with recalls and records. J. Clin. Epidemiol. 1996; 49: 1195–1200.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
20Sawaya, AL, Tucker, K, Tsay, R, Willett, W, Saltzman, E, Dallal, GE, et al. Evaluation of four methods for determining energy intake in young and older women: comparison with doubly labeled water measurements of total energy expenditure [see comments]. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 1996; 63: 491–9.Google Scholar
21Tylavsky, FA, Sharp, GB. Misclassification of nutrient and energy intake from use of closed-ended questions in epidemiologic research. Am. J. Epidemiol. 1995; 142: 342–52.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
22Coates, RJ, Serdula, MK, Byers, T, Mokdad, A, Jewell, S, Leonard, SB, et al. A brief, telephone-administered food frequency questionnaire can be useful for surveillance of dietary fat intakes. J. Nutr. 1995; 125: 1473–83.Google Scholar
23Coates, RJ, Eley, JW, Block, G, Gunter, EW, Sowell, AL, Grossman, C, et al. An evaluation of a food frequency questionnaire for assessing dietary intake of specific carotenoids and vitamin E among low-income black women. Am. J. Epidemiol. 1991; 134: 658–71.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
24Krall, EA, Dwyer, JT. Validity of a food frequency questionnaire and a food diary in a short-term recall situation. J. Am. Diet. Assoc. 1987; 87: 1374–7.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
25Godley, PA, Campbell, MK, Miller, C, Gallagher, P, Martinson, FE, Mohler, JL, et al. Correlation between biomarkers of omega-3 fatty acid consumption and questionnaire data in African American and Caucasian United States males with and without prostatic carcinoma. Cancer Epidemiol. Biomark. Prev. 1996; 5: 115–9.Google ScholarPubMed
26Wilkins, JR III, Bunn, JY. Comparing dietary recall data for mothers and children obtained on two occasions in a case–control study of environmental factors and childhood brain tumours. Int. J. Epidemiol. 1997; 26: 953–63.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
27Mayer-Davis, EJ, Vitolins, MZ, Carmichael, SL, Hemphill, S, Tsaroucha, G, Rushing, J, et al. Validity and reproducibility of a food frequency interview in a multi-cultural epidemiologic study. Ann. Epidemiol. 1999; 9: 314–24.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
28Kuriniji, N, Gensler, G, Milton, R. Development and validation of a food frequency questionnaire in a randomised trial of eye diseases [abstract]. Eur. J. Clin. Nutr. 1998; 52(Suppl. 2): S40.Google Scholar
29Potischman, N, Caroll, R, Iturra, S. Comparison of the 60- and 100-item NCI-Block questionnaires with validation data. Eur. J. Clin. Nutr. 1998; 52: S63.Google Scholar
30Green, TJ, Allen, OB, O'Connor, DL. A three-day weighed food record and a semiquantitative food-frequency questionnaire are valid measures for assessing the folate and vitamin B-12 intakes of women aged 16 to 19 years. J. Nutr. 1998; 128: 1665–71.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
31Smith, W, Mitchell, P, Reay, EM, Webb, K, Harvey, PW. Validity and reproducibility of a self-administered food frequency questionnaire in older people. Aust. NZ J. Public Health 1998; 22: 456–63.Google Scholar
32Rockett, HR, Breitenbach, M, Frazier, AL, Witschi, J, Wolf, AM, Field, AE, et al. Validation of a youth/adolescent food frequency questionnaire. Prev. Med. 1997; 26: 808–16.Google Scholar
33Smith-Warner, SA, Elmer, PJ, Fosdick, L, Tharp, TM, Randall, B. Reliability and comparability of three dietary assessment methods for estimating fruit and vegetable intakes. Epidemiology 1997; 8: 196–201.Google Scholar
34Cooper, GS, Busby, MG, Fairchild, AP. Measurement of lactose consumption reliability and comparison of two methods. Ann. Epidemiol. 1995; 5: 473–7.Google Scholar
35Kaskoun, MC, Johnson, RK, Goran, MI. Comparison of energy intake by semiquantitative food-frequency questionnaire with total energy expenditure by the doubly labeled water method in young children. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 1994; 60: 43–7.Google Scholar
36Basch, CE, Shea, S, Zybert, P. The reproducibility of data from a food frequency questionnaire among low-income Latina mothers and their children. Am. J. Public Health 1994; 84: 861–4.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
37Ajani, UA, Willett, WC, Seddon, JM. Reproducibility of a food frequency questionnaire for use in ocular research. Eye Disease Case–Control Study Group. Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 1994; 35: 2725–33.Google ScholarPubMed
38Byers, T, Trieber, F, Gunter, E, Coates, R, Sowell, A, Leonard, S, et al. The accuracy of parental reports of their children's intake of fruits and vegetables: validation of a food frequency questionnaire with serum levels of carotenoids and vitamins C, A, and E. Epidemiology 1993; 4: 350–5.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
39Stein, AD, Shea, S, Basch, CE, Contento, IR, Zybert, P. Consistency of the Willett semiquantitative food frequency questionnaire and 24-hour dietary recalls in estimating nutrient intakes of preschool children. Am. J. Epidemiol. 1992; 135: 667–77.Google Scholar
40Eck, LH, Klesges, RC, Hanson, CL, Slawson, D, Portis, L, Lavasque, ME. Measuring short-term dietary intake: development and testing of a 1-week food frequency questionnaire. J. Am. Diet. Assoc. 1991; 91: 940–5.Google Scholar
41Tucker, KL, Chen, H, Vogel, S, Wilson, PW, Schaefer, EJ, Lammi-Keefe, CJ. Carotenoid intakes, assessed by dietary questionnaire, are associated with plasma carotenoid concentrations in an elderly population. J. Nutr. 1999; 129: 438–45.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
42Caan, BJ, Slattery, ML, Potter, J, Quesenberry, CP Jr, Coates, AO, Schaffer, DM. Comparison of the Block and the Willett self-administered semiquantitative food frequency questionnaires with an interviewer-administered dietary history [see comments]. Am. J. Epidemiol. 1998; 148: 1137–47.Google Scholar
43Radimer, KL, Harvey, PW. Comparison of self-report of reduced fat and salt foods with sales and supply data. Eur. J. Clin. Nutr. 1998; 52: 380–2.Google Scholar
44MacIntosh, DL, Williams, PL, Hunter, DJ, Sampson, LA, Morris, SC, Willett, WC, et al. Evaluation of a food frequency questionnaire–food composition approach for estimating dietary intake of inorganic arsenic and methylmercury. Cancer Epidemiol. Biomark. Prev. 1997; 6: 1043–50.Google ScholarPubMed
45Bingham, SA, Day, NE. Using biochemical markers to assess the validity of prospective dietary assessment methods and the effect of energy adjustment. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 1997; 65: 1130S–7S.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
46Brown, JE, Buzzard, IM, Jacobs, DR Jr, Hannan, PJ, Kushi, LH, Barosso, GM, et al. A food frequency questionnaire can detect pregnancy-related changes in diet. J. Am. Diet. Assoc. 1996; 96: 262–66.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
47Ma, J, Folsom, AR, Shahar, E, Eckfeldt, JH. Plasma fatty acid composition as an indicator of habitual dietary fat intake in middle-aged adults. The Atherosclerosis Risk in Communities (ARIC) Study Investigators. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 1995; 62: 564–71.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
48Enger, SM, Longnecker, MP, Shikany, JM, Swenseid, ME, Chen, MJ, Harper, JM, et al. Questionnaire assessment of intake of specific carotenoids. Cancer Epidemiol. Biomark. Prev. 1995; 4: 201–5.Google ScholarPubMed
49Forsythe, HE, Gage, B. Use of a multicultural food-frequency questionnaire with pregnant and lactating women. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 1994; 59: 203S–6S.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
50Giovannucci, E, Colditz, GA, Stampfer, MJ, Rimm, EB, Litin, L, Sampson, L, et al. The assessment of alcohol consumption by a simple self-administered questionnaire. Am. J. Epidemiol. 1991; 133: 810–7.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
51Stevens, J, Metcalf, PA, Dennis, BH, Tell, GS, Shimakawa, T, Folsom, AR. Reliability of a food frequency questionnaire by ethnicity, gender, age and education. Nutr. Res. 1996; 16: 735–45.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
52Bell, AC, Swinburn, BA, Amosa, H, Scragg, R, Sharpe, SJ. Measuring the dietary intake of Samoans living in New Zealand: comparison of a food frequency questionnaire and a 7 day diet record. Asia Pacific J. Clin. Nutr. 1999; 8: 149–54.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
53Field, AE, Peterson, KE, Gortmaker, SL, Cheung, L, Rockett, H, Fox, MK, et al. Reproducibility and validity of a food frequency questionnaire among fourth to seventh grade inner-city school children: implications of age and day-to-day variation in dietary intake. Public Health Nutr. 1999; 2: 293–300.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
54Block, G. Block vs Willett: a debate on the validity of food frequency questionnaires [letter]. J. Am. Diet. Assoc. 1994; 94: 16–9.Google Scholar
55Block, G. Invited commentary: comparison of the Block and the Willett food frequency questionnaires [editorial; comment]. Am. J. Epidemiol. 1998; 148: 1160–1.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
56Hankin, JH. Block vs Willett: a debate on the validity of food frequency questionnaires [letter]. J. Am. Diet. Assoc. 1994; 94: 16–9.Google Scholar
57Longnecker, MP, Chen, MJ, Caan, B. Block vs Willett: a debate on the validity of food frequency questionnaires [letter]. J. Am. Diet. Assoc. 1994; 94: 16–9.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
58Willett, WC. Block vs Willett: a debate on the validity of food frequency questionnaires [letter]. J. Am. Diet. Assoc. 1994; 94: 16–9.Google Scholar
59Fraser, GE, Lindsted, KD, Knutsen, SF, Beeson, WL, Bennett, H, Shavlik, DJ. Validity of dietary recall over 20 years among California Seventh-day Adventists. Am. J. Epidemiol. 1998; 148: 810–8.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
60Lindsted, KD, Kuzma, JW. Long-term (24-year) recall reliability in cancer cases and controls using a 21-item food frequency questionnaire. Nutr. Cancer 1989; 12: 135–49.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
61Sobell, J, Block, G, Koslowe, P, Tobin, J, Andres, R. Validation of a retrospective questionnaire assessing diet 10–15 years ago. Am. J. Epidemiol. 1989; 130: 173–87.Google Scholar
62Thompson, FE, Metzner, HL, Lamphiear, DE, Hawthorne, VM. Characteristics of individuals and long term reproducibility of dietary reports: the Tecumseh Diet Methodology Study. J. Clin. Epidemiol. 1990; 43: 1169–78.Google Scholar
63Tsubono, Y, Fukao, A, Hisamichi, S, Tsugane, S. Perceptions of change in diet have limited utility for improving estimates of past food frequency of individuals. Nutr. Cancer 1995; 23: 299–307.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
64Wilkens, LR, Hankin, JH, Yoshizawa, CN, Kolonel, LN, Lee, J. Comparison of long-term dietary recall between cancer cases and noncases. Am. J. Epidemiol. 1992; 136: 825–35.Google Scholar
65Willett, WC, Sampson, L, Browne, ML, Stampfer, MJ, Rosner, B, Hennekens, CH, et al. The use of a self-administered questionnaire to assess diet four years in the past. Am. J. Epidemiol. 1988; 127: 188–99.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
66Sempos, CT. Some limitations of semiquantitative food frequency questionnaires. Am. J. Epidemiol. 1992; 135: 1127–32.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
67Willett, WC. Nutritional Epidemiology. New York: Oxford University Press, 1998.Google Scholar
68Margetts, BM, Thompson, RL, Key, T, Duffy, S, Nelson, M, Bingham, S, et al. Development of a scoring system to judge the scientific quality of information from case–control and cohort studies of nutrition and disease. Nutr. Cancer 1995; 24: 231–9.Google Scholar
69Prynne, CJ, Paul, AA, Price, GM, Day, KC, Hilder, WS, Wadsworth, ME. Food and nutrient intake of a national sample of 4-year-old children in 1950: comparison with the 1990s. Public Health Nutr. 1999; 2: 537–47.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
70Glasgow, RE, Perry, JD, Toobert, DJ, Hollis, JF. Brief assessments of dietary behavior in field settings. Addict. Behav. 1996; 21: 239–47.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
71Roe, L, Strong, C, Whiteside, C, Neil, A, Mant, D. Dietary intervention in primary care: validity of the DINE method for diet assessment. Family Practice 1994; 11: 375–81.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
72Wilson, P, Horwath, C. Validation of a short food frequency questionnaire for assessment of dietary calcium intake in women. Eur. J. Clin. Nutr. 1996; 50: 220–8.Google Scholar
73Taitano, RT, Novotny, R, Davis, JW, Ross, PD, Wasnich, RD. Validity of a food frequency questionnaire for estimating calcium intake among Japanese and white women. J. Am. Diet. Assoc. 1995; 95: 804–6.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
74Haines, CJ, Chung, TK, Leung, PC, Leung, DH, Wong, MY, Lam, LL. Dietary calcium intake in postmenopausal Chinese women. Eur. J. Clin. Nutr. 1994; 48: 591–4.Google ScholarPubMed
75Taylor, RW, Goulding, A. Validation of a short food frequency questionnaire to assess calcium intake in children aged 3 to 6 years. Eur. J. Clin. Nutr. 1998; 52: 464–5.Google Scholar
76Molgaard, C, Sandstrom, B, Michaelsen, KF. Evaluation of a food frequency questionnaire for assessing of calcium, protein and phosphorus intakes in children and adolescents. Scand. J. Nutr./Naringsforskning 1998; 42: 2–5.Google Scholar
77Angbratt, M, Moller, M. Questionnaire about calcium intake: can we trust the answers? Osteopor. Int. 1999; 9: 220–5.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
78Rogalska-Niedzwiedz, M, Charzewska, J, Wajszcyk, B, Lachowtiz, A, Gorajec, M, van Erp-Baart, MA. Comparison of food frequency questionnaire and a 3 day record in estimating sources of calcium intake in Polish girls and women. Eur. J. Clin. Nutr. 1998; 52: S56.Google Scholar
79Sharma, S, Cade, J, Jackson, M, Mbanya, JC, Chungong, S, Forrester, T, et al. Development of food frequency questionnaires in three population samples of African origin from Cameroon, Jamaica and Caribbean migrants to the UK. Eur. J. Clin. Nutr. 1996; 50: 479–86.Google ScholarPubMed
80Tsubono, Y, Takamori, S, Kobayashi, M, Takahashi, T, Iwase, Y, Iitoi, Y, et al. A data-based approach for designing a semiquantitative food frequency questionnaire for a population-based prospective study in Japan. J. Epidemiol. 1996; 6: 45–53.Google Scholar
81Cade, JE, Margetts, BM. Nutrient sources in the English diet: quantitative data from three English towns. Int. J. Epidemiol. 1988; 17: 844–8.Google Scholar
82Brants, HAM, Bouman, M, van Erp-Baart, MA, Goldbohm, RA. FOFREX: a computerized system to develop food frequency questionnaires. Eur. J. Clin. Nutr. 1998; 52: S66.Google Scholar
83Wise, A. Food frequency questionnaire design by computer [abstract]. Eur. J. Clin. Nutr. 1998; 52(Suppl. 2): S15.Google Scholar
84Silvennoinen, J, Lamberg-Allardt, C, Karkkainen, M, Niemela, S, Lehtola, J. Dietary calcium intake and its relation to bone mineral density in patients with inflammatory bowel disease. J. Intern. Med. 1996; 240: 285–92.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
85Andon, MB, Smith, KT, Bracker, M, Sartoris, D, Saltman, P, Strause, L. Spinal bone density and calcium intake in healthy postmenopausal women. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 1991; 54: 927–9.Google Scholar
86Nelson, M, Mayer, AB, Rutherford, O, Jones, D. Calcium intake, physical activity and bone mass in pre-menopausal women. J. Hum. Nutr. Diet. 1991; 4: 171–8.Google Scholar
87Serdula, M, Byers, T, Coates, R, Mokdad, A, Simoes, EJ, Eldridge, L. Assessing consumption of high-fat foods: the effect of grouping foods into single questions. Epidemiology 1992; 3: 503–8.Google Scholar
88Krebs-Smith, SM, Heimendinger, J, Subar, AF, Patterson, BH, Pivonka, E. Using food frequency questionnaires to estimate fruit and vegetable intake: association between the number of questions and total intakes. J. Nutr. Educ. 1995; 27: 80–5.Google Scholar
89Cummings, SR, Block, G, McHenry, K, Baron, RB. Evaluation of two food frequency methods of measuring dietary calcium intake. Am. J. Epidemiol. 1987; 126: 796–802.Google Scholar
90Blalock, SJ, Currey, SS, DeVellis, RF, Anderson, JJB, Gold, DT, Dooley, MA. Using a short food frequency questionnaire to estimate dietary calcium consumption: a tool for patient education. Arthrit. Care Res. 1998; 11: 479–84.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
91Schaffer, DM, Coates, AO, Caan, BJ, Slattery, ML, Potter, JD. Performance of a shortened telephone-administered version of a quantitative food frequency questionnaire. Ann. Epidemiol. 1997; 7: 463–71.Google Scholar
92Pietinen, P, Hartman, AM, Haapa, E, Rasanen, L, Haapakoski, J, Palmgren, J, et al. Reproducibility and validity of dietary assessment instruments. II. A qualitative food frequency questionnaire. Am. J. Epidemiol. 1988; 128: 667–76.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
93Pietinen, P, Hartman, AM, Haapa, E, Rasanen, L, Haapakoski, J, Palmgren, J, et al. Reproducibility and validity of dietary assessment instruments. I. A self-administered food use questionnaire with a portion size picture booklet. Am. J. Epidemiol. 1988; 128: 655–66.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
94Faggiano, F, Vineis, P, Cravanzola, D, Pisani, P, Xompero, G, Riboli, E, et al. Validation of a method for the estimation of food portion size. Epidemiology 1992; 3: 379–82.Google Scholar
95Hunter, DJ, Sampson, L, Stampfer, MJ, Colditz, GA, Rosner, B, Willett, WC. Variability in portion sizes of commonly consumed foods among a population of women in the United States. Am. J. Epidemiol. 1988; 127: 1240–9.Google Scholar
96Conn, JA, Rutishauser, IHE, Wheeler, CE. Portion size data for foods consumed by a randomly selected sample of Geelong adults.Aust J. Nutr. Diet. 1994; 51: 58–65.Google Scholar
97Tjonneland, A, Haraldsdottir, J, Overvad, K, Stripp, C, Ewertz, M, Jensen, OM. Influence of individually estimated portion size data on the validity of a semiquantitative food frequency questionnaire. Int. J. Epidemiol. 1992; 21: 770–7.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
98Nelson, M, Haraldsdottir, J. Food photographs: practical guidelines I. Design and analysis of studies to validate portion size estimates. Public Health Nutr. 1998; 1: 219–30.Google Scholar
99Tsuchida, K, Mizushima, S, Toba, M, Soda, K. Dietary soybeans intake and bone mineral density among 995 middle-aged women in Yokohama. J. Epidemiol. 1999; 9: 14–9.Google Scholar
100Caan, BJ, Lanza, E, Schatzkin, A, Coates, AO, Brewer, BK, Slattery, ML, et al. Does nutritionist review of a self-administered food frequency questionnaire improve data quality? Public Health Nutr. 1999; 2: 565–9.Google Scholar
101Fox, TA, Heimendinger, J, Block, G. Telephone surveys as a method for obtaining dietary information: a review. J. Am. Diet. Assoc. 1992; 92: 729–32.Google Scholar
102Lyu, LC, Hankin, JH, Liu, LQ, Wilkens, LR, Lee, JH, Goodman, MT, et al. Telephone vs face-to-face interviews for quantitative food frequency assessment. J. Am. Diet. Assoc. 1998; 98: 44–8.Google Scholar
103Ritenbaugh, C, Peng, YM, Aickin, M, Graver, E, Branch, M, Alberts, DS. New carotenoid values for foods improve relationship of food frequency questionnaire intake estimates to plasma values. Cancer Epidemiol. Biomark. Prev. 1996; 5: 907–12.Google Scholar
104Cowin, I, Emmett, P. The effect of missing data in the supplements to McCance and Widdowson's food tables on calculated nutrient intakes. Eur. J. Clin. Nutr. 1999; 53: 891–4.Google Scholar
105Clapp, JA, McPherson, RS, Reed, DB, Hsi, BP. Comparison of a food frequency questionnaire using reported vs standard portion sizes for classifying individuals according to nutrient intake. J. Am. Diet. Assoc. 1991; 91: 316–20.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
106Haraldsdottir, J, Tjonneland, A, Overvad, K. Validity of individual portion size estimates in a food frequency questionnaire. Int. J. Epidemiol. 1994; 23: 786–96.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
107Kassam, KT, Nanchahal, K, Mangtani, P, Santos Silva, I, McMichael, A, Anderson, A, et al. Development of an interview-administered food-frequency questionnaire for use amongst women of South Asian ethnic origin in Britain. J. Hum. Nutr. Diet. 1999; 12: 7–19.Google Scholar
108Lanham, SA, Bolton-Smith, C. Development of food frequency questionnaire [abstract]. Proc. Nutr. Soc. 1993; 52: 330A.Google Scholar
109Tsubono, Y, Kobayashi, M, Takahashi, T, Iwase, Y, Iitoi, Y, Akabane, M, et al. Within- and between-person variations in portion sizes of foods consumed by the Japanese population. Nutr. Cancer 1997; 29: 140–5.Google Scholar
110Wolk, A, Ljung, H, Vessby, B, Hunter, D, Willett, WC. Effect of additional questions about fat on the validity of fat estimates from a food frequency questionnaire. Study Group of MRS SWEA. Eur. J. Clin. Nutr. 1998; 52: 186–92.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
111Dorant, E, van den Brandt, PA, Goldbohm, RA, Hermus, RJ, Sturmans, F. Agreement between interview data and a self-administered questionnaire on dietary supplement use. Eur. J. Clin. Nutr. 1994; 48: 180–8.Google Scholar
112Calvert, C, Cade, J, Barrett, JH, Woodhouse, A. Using cross-check questions to address the problem of mis-reporting of specific food groups on food frequency questionnaires. United Kingdom Women's Cohort Study Steering Group. Eur. J. Clin. Nutr. 1997; 51: 708–12.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
113Subar, AF, Thompson, FE, Smith, AF, Jobe, JB, Ziegler, RG, Potischman, N, et al. Improving food frequency questionnaires: a qualitative approach using cognitive interviewing. J. Am. Diet. Assoc. 1995; 95: 781–8.Google Scholar
114Bueno de Mesquita, HB, Smeets, FW, Runia, S, Hulshof, KF. The reproducibility of a food frequency questionnaire among controls participating in a case–control study on cancer. Nutr. Cancer 1992; 18: 143–56.Google Scholar
115Engle, A, Lynn, LL, Koury, K, Boyar, AP. Reproducibility and comparability of a computerized, self-administered food frequency questionnaire. Nutr. Cancer 1990; 13: 281–92.Google Scholar
116Jacobsen, BK, Bonaa, KH. The reproducibility of dietary data from a self-administered questionnaire. The Tromso Study. Int. J. Epidemiol. 1990; 19: 349–53.Google Scholar
117Morabia, A, Moore, M, Wynder, EL. Reproducibility of food frequency measurements and inferences from a case–control study. Epidemiology 1990; 1: 305–10.Google Scholar
118Tsubono, Y, Nishino, Y, Fukao, A, Hisamichi, S, Tsugane, S. Temporal change in the reproducibility of a self-administered food frequency questionnaire. Am. J. Epidemiol. 1995; 142: 1231–5.Google Scholar
119Altman, DG, Bland, JM. Measurement in medicine: the analysis of method comparison studies. Statistician 1983; 32: 307–17.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
120Bland, JM, Altman, DG. Statistical methods for assessing agreement between two methods of clinical measurement. Lancet 1986; 1: 307–10.Google Scholar
121Bland, JM, Altman, DG. Comparing methods of measurement: why plotting difference against standard method is misleading. Lancet 1995; 346: 1085–7.Google Scholar
122Bland, JM, Altman, DG. Measuring agreement in method comparison studies [review]. Statist. Meth. Med. Res. 1999; 8: 135–60.Google Scholar
123O'Brien, E, Petrie, J, Littler, W, de Swiet, M, Padfield, PL, Altman, DG, et al. The British Hypertension Society protocol for the evaluation of blood pressure measuring devices. J. Hypertens. 1993; 11: S43–62.Google Scholar
124Kinlay, S, Elliott, H, Heller, RF. Identifying individuals with high fat levels and low P:S ratios, in their diets, for intensive dietary intervention. J. Intern. Med. 1997; 241: 407–414.Google Scholar
125Tokunaga, S, Hirohata, T, Hirohata, I. Reproducibility of dietary and other data from a self-administered questionnaire. Environ. Health Perspect. 1994; 102(Suppl. 8): 5–10.Google Scholar
126Hankin, JH, Wilkens, LR, Kolonel, LN, Yoshizawa, CN. Validation of a quantitative diet history method in Hawaii. Am. J. Epidemiol. 1991; 133: 616–28.Google Scholar
127Wheeler, CE, Rutishauser, IHE, O'Dea, K. Comparison of nutrient intake data from two food frequency questionnaires and weighed records. Aust. J. Nutr. Diet. 1995; 52: 140–8.Google Scholar
128Xing, X, Burr, JA, Brasure, JR, Neugut, AI, Marshall, JR. Reproducibility of nutrient intake in a food frequency questionnaire used in a general population. Nutr. Cancer 1996; 25: 259–68.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
129Nelson, M. The validation of dietary assessment. In: Margetts, BM, Nelson, M, eds. Design Concepts in Nutritional Epidemiology. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1997; 241–72.Google Scholar
130Burema, J, van Staveren, WA, van den Brandt, PA. Validity and reproducibility. In: Cameron, ME, van Staveren, WA, eds. Manual on Methodology for Food Consumption Studies. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1988; 171–81.Google Scholar
131McPherson, RS, Kohl, HW III, Garcia, G, Nichaman, MZ, Hanis, CL. Food-frequency questionnaire validation among Mexican-Americans: Starr County, Texas [see comments]. Ann. Epidemiol. 1995; 5: 378–85.Google Scholar
132Altman, DG. Practical Statistics for Medical Research. London: Chapman and Hall, 1991.Google Scholar
133Bingham, SA, Cassidy, A, Cole, TJ, Welch, A, Runswick, SA, Black, AE, et al. Validation of weighed records and other methods of dietary assessment using the 24 h urine nitrogen technique and other biological markers. Br. J. Nutr. 1995; 73: 531–50.Google Scholar
134Hernandez-Avila, M, Romieu, I, Parra, S, Hernandez-Avila, J, Madrigal, H, Willett, W. Validity and reproducibility of a food frequency questionnaire to assess dietary intake of women living in Mexico City. Salud Publica de Mexico 1998; 40: 133–40.Google Scholar
135Hebert, JR, Gupta, PC, Bhonsle, RB, Sinor, PN, Mehta, H, Mehta, FS. Development and testing of a quantitative food frequency questionnaire for use in Gujarat, India. Public Health Nutr. 1999; 2: 39–50.Google Scholar
136Kristal, AR, Shattuck, AL, Henry, HJ, Fowler, AS. Rapid assessment of dietary intake of fat, fiber, and saturated fat: validity of an instrument suitable for community intervention research and nutritional surveillance. Am. J. Health Prom. 1990; 4: 288–95.Google Scholar
137Black, AE, Coward, WA, Cole, TJ, Prentice, AM. Human energy expenditure in affluent societies: an analysis of 574 doubly-labelled water measurements. Eur. J. Clin. Nutr. 1996; 50: 72–92.Google Scholar
138Isaksson, B. Urinary nitrogen output as a validity test in dietary surveys [letter]. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 1980; 33: 4–5.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
139Bingham, SA. The dietary assessment of individuals; methods, accuracy, new techniques and recommendations. Nutr. Abstr. Rev., A (Hum. Exp.) 1987; 57: 705–42.Google Scholar
140Bingham, SA, Gill, C, Welch, A, Day, K, Cassidy, A, Khaw, KT, et al. Comparison of dietary assessment methods in nutritional epidemiology: weighed records v. 24 h recalls, food-frequency questionnaires and estimated-diet records [see comments]. Br. J. Nutr. 1994; 72: 619–43.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
141Potosky, AL, Block, G, Hartman, AM. The apparent validity of diet questionnaires is influenced by number of diet-record days used for comparison. J. Am. Diet. Assoc. 1990; 90: 810–3.Google Scholar
142Stram, DO, Longnecker, MP, Shames, L, Kolonel, LN, Wilkens, LR, Pike, MC, et al. Cost-efficient design of a diet validation study. Am. J. Epidemiol. 1995; 142: 353–62.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
143Holland, B, Welch, AA, Unwin, ID, Buss, DH, Paul, AA, Southgate, AT. McCance and Widdowson's The Composition of Foods. The Royal Society of Chemistry and Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food. London: HMSO, 1992.Google Scholar
144West, CE, van Staveren, WA. Food consumption, nutrient intake, and the use of food composition tables. In: Margetts, BM, Nelson, M, eds. Design Concepts in Nutritional Epidemiology. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1997; 107–22.Google Scholar
145Klesges, RC, Eck, LH, Ray, JW. Who underreports dietary intake in a dietary recall? Evidence from the Second National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey. J. Consult. Clin. Psychol. 1995; 63: 438–44.Google Scholar
146Pryer, JA, Vrijheid, M, Nichols, R, Kiggins, M, Elliott, P. Who are the low energy reporters in the dietary and nutritional survey of British adults? Int. J. Epidemiol. 1997; 26: 146–54.Google Scholar
147Schofield, WN, Schofield, C, James, WPT. Basal metabolic rate – review and prediction. Hum. Nutr. Clin. Nutr. 1985; 39: 1–96.Google Scholar
148Beaton, GH. Interpretation of results from diet history studies. In: The Diet History Method: Proceedings of the 2nd Berlin Meeting on Nutritional Epidemiology. London: Smith-Gordon & Co. Ltd, 1991; 15–38.Google Scholar
149Dunn, G. Design and Analysis of Reliability Studies. London: Edward Arnold, 1989.Google Scholar
150Ocke, MC, Kaaks, RJ. Biochemical markers as additional measurements in dietary validity studies: application of the method of triads with examples from the European Prospective Investigation into Cancer and Nutrition [review]. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 1997; 65: 1240S–5S.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
151Wong, MY, Day, NE, Wareham, NJ. Measurement error in epidemiology: the design of validation studies II: bivariate situation. Statist. Med. 1999; 18: 2831–45.Google Scholar
152Kaaks, R, Riboli, E, Esteve, J, Van Kappel, AL, van Staveren, WA. Estimating the accuracy of dietary questionnaire assessments: validation in terms of structural equation models. Statist. Med. 1994; 13: 127–42.Google Scholar
153Plummer, M, Clayton, D. Measurement error in dietary assessment: an investigation using covariance structure models. Part I.Statist. Med. 1993; 12: 925–35.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
154Kipnis, V, Carroll, RJ, Freedman, LS, Li, L. Implications of a new dietary measurement error model for estimation of relative risk: application to four calibration studies. Am. J. Epidemiol. 1999; 150: 642–51.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
155Baghurst, KI, Baghurst, PA, Record, SJ. Demographic and dietary profiles of high and low fat consumers in Australia. J. Epidemiol. Community Health 1994; 48: 26–32.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
156Franceschi, S, Favero, A, La Vecchia, C, Negri, E, Conti, E, Montella, M, et al. Food groups and risk of colorectal cancer in Italy. Int. J. Cancer 1997; 72: 56–61.Google Scholar
157Trichopoulou, A, Georgiou, E, Bassiakos, Y, Lipworth, L, Lagiou, P, Proukakis, C, et al. Energy intake and monounsaturated fat in relation to bone mineral density among women and men in Greece. Prev. Med. 1997; 26: 395–400.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
158Schuurman, AG, Goldbohm, RA, Dorant, E, van den Brandt, PA. Vegetable and fruit consumption and prostate cancer risk: a cohort study in The Netherlands. Cancer Epidemiol. Biomark. Prev. 1998; 7: 673–680.Google Scholar
159Rimm, EB, Willett, WC, Hu, FB, Sampson, L, Colditz, GA, Manson, JE, et al. Folate and vitamin B6 from diet and supplements in relation to risk of coronary heart disease among women [see comments]. J. Am. Med. Assoc. 1998; 279: 359–64.Google Scholar
160Hertog, MG, Sweetnam, PM, Fehily, AM, Elwood, PC, Kromhout, D. Antioxidant flavonols and ischemic heart disease in a Welsh population of men: the Caerphilly Study. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 1997; 65: 1489–94.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
161Albert, CM, Hennekens, CH, O'Donnell, CJ, Ajani, UA, Carey, VJ, Willett, WC, et al. Fish consumption and risk of sudden cardiac death [see comments]. J. Am. Med. Assoc. 1998; 279: 23–8.Google Scholar
162Andersson, S-O, Wolk, A, Bergstrom, R, Giovannucci, E, Lindgren, C, Baron, J, et al. Energy, nutrient intake and prostate cancer risk: a population-based case–control study in Sweden. Int. J. Cancer 1996; 68: 716–22.Google Scholar
163Tjonneland, A, Gronbaek, M, Stripp, C, Overvad, K. Wine intake and diet in a random sample of 48 763 Danish men and women. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 1999; 69: 49–54.Google Scholar
164Bolton-Smith, C, Smith, WC, Woodward, M, Tunstall-Pedoe, H. Nutrient intakes of different social-class groups: results from the Scottish Heart Health Study (SHHS). Br. J. Nutr. 1991; 65: 321–35.Google Scholar
165Osler, M, Heitmann, BL, Schroll, M. Ten year trends in the dietary habits of Danish men and women. Cohort and cross-sectional data. Eur. J. Clin. Nutr. 1997; 51: 535–41.Google Scholar
166Williams, DE, Wareham, NJ, Cox, BD, Byrne, CD, Hales, CN, Day, NE. Frequent salad vegetable consumption is associated with a reduction in the risk of diabetes mellitus. J. Clin. Epidemiol. 1999; 52: 329–35.Google Scholar
167Margetts, BM, Thompson, RL, Speller, V, McVey, D. Factors which influence healthy eating patterns: results from the 1993 Health Education Authority health and lifestyle survey in England. Public Health Nutr. 1998; 1: 193–8.Google Scholar
168Prevost, AT, Whichelow, MJ, Cox, BD. Longitudinal dietary changes between 1984–5 and 1991–2 in British adults: association with socio-demographic, lifestyle and health factors. Br. J. Nutr. 1997; 78: 873–88.Google Scholar
169Smith, AM, Smith, C. Dietary intake and lifestyle patterns: correlates with socio-economic, demographic and environmental factors. J. Hum. Nutr. Diet. 1994; 7: 283–94.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
170Slattery, ML, Schumacher, MC, Smith, KR, West, DW, Abd-Elghany, N. Physical activity, diet, and risk of colon cancer in Utah [see comments]. Am. J. Epidemiol. 1988; 128: 989–9.Google Scholar
171Potischman, N, Weiss, HA, Swanson, CA, Coates, RJ, Gammon, MD, Malone, KE, et al. Diet during adolescence and risk of breast cancer among young women. J. Natl. Cancer Inst. 1998; 90: 226–33.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
172Tzonou, A, Lagiou, P, Trichopoulou, A, Tsoutsos, V, Trichopoulos, D. Dietary iron and coronary heart disease risk: a study from Greece. Am. J. Epidemiol. 1998; 147: 161–6.Google Scholar
173Bakkum, A, Bloemberg, B, van Staveren, WA, Verschuren, M, West, CE. The relative validity of a retrospective estimate of food consumption based on a current dietary history and a food frequency list. Nutr. Cancer 1988; 11: 41–53.Google Scholar
174Byers, T, Marshall, J, Anthony, E, Fiedler, R, Zielezny, M. The reliability of dietary history from the distant past [published erratum appears in Am. J. Epidemiol. 1987; 126(6): 1220]. Am. J. Epidemiol. 1987; 125: 999–1011.Google Scholar
175Goldbohm, RA, van't Veer, P, van den Brandt, PA, van't Hof, MA, Brants, HA, Sturmans, F, et al. Reproducibility of a food frequency questionnaire and stability of dietary habits determined from five annually repeated measurements. Eur. J. Clin. Nutr. 1995; 49: 420–9.Google Scholar
176Rohan, TE, Potter, JD. Retrospective assessment of dietary intake. Am. J. Epidemiol. 1984; 120: 876–87.Google Scholar
177Rothenberg, E. Validation of the food frequency questionnaire with the 4-day record method and analysis of 24-h urinary nitrogen. Eur. J. Clin. Nutr. 1994; 48: 725–35.Google Scholar
178D'Avanzo, B, La Vecchia, C, Katsouyanni, K, Negri, E, Trichopoulos, D. An assessment, and reproducibility of food frequency data provided by hospital controls. Eur. J. Cancer Prev. 1997; 6: 288–93.Google Scholar
179Maclure, M, Travis, LB, Willett, W, MacMahon, B. A prospective cohort study of nutrient intake and age at menarche. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 1991; 54: 649–56.Google Scholar
180Bostick, RM, Potter, JD, Sellers, TA, McKenzie, DR, Kushi, LH, Folsom, AR. Relation of calcium, vitamin D, and dairy food intake to incidence of colon cancer among older women. The Iowa Women's Health Study [review]. Am. J. Epidemiol. 1993; 137: 1302–17.Google Scholar
181Jacques, PF, Taylor, A, Hankinson, SE, Willett, WC, Mahnken, B, Lee, Y, et al. Long-term vitamin C supplement use and prevalence of early age-related lens opacities [see comments]. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 1997; 66: 911–6.Google Scholar
182Aldoori, WH, Giovannucci, EL, Stampfer, MJ, Rimm, EB, Wing, AL, Willett, WC. Prospective study of diet and the risk of duodenal ulcer in men. Am. J. Epidemiol. 1997; 145: 42–50.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
183Botterweck, AA, van den Brandt, PA, Goldbohm, RA. A prospective cohort study on vegetable and fruit consumption and stomach cancer risk in The Netherlands. Am. J. Epidemiol. 1998; 148: 842–53.Google Scholar
184Hu, FB, Stampfer, MJ, Manson, JE, Rimm, E, Colditz, GA, Speizer, FE, et al. Dietary protein and risk of ischemic heart disease in women. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 1999; 70: 221–7.Google Scholar
185Elmstahl, S, Holmqvist, O, Gullberg, B, Johansson, J, Berglund, G. Dietary patterns in high and low consumers of meat in a Swedish cohort study. Appetite 1999; 32: 191–206.Google Scholar
186Hu, FB, Rimm, E, Smith-Warner, SA, Feskanich, D, Stampfer, MJ, Ascherio, A, et al. Reproducibility and validity of dietary patterns assessed with a food-frequency questionnaire. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 1999; 69: 243–9.Google Scholar
187Greenwood, DC, Cade, JE, Draper, A, Barrett, JH, Calvert, C, Greenhalgh, A. Seven unique food consumption patterns identified among women in the UK Women's Cohort Study. Eur. J. Clin. Nutr. 2000; 54: 314–20.Google Scholar
188Little, P, Barnett, J, Kinmonth, AL, Margetts, B, Gabbay, J, Thompson, R, et al. Can dietary assessment in general practice target patients with unhealthy diets? Br. J. Gen. Pract. 2000; 50: 43–5.Google Scholar
189Blom, L, Lundmark, K, Dahlquist, G, Persson, LA. Estimating children's eating habits. Validity of a questionnaire measuring food frequency compared to a 7-day record. Acta Paediatr. Scand. 1989; 78: 858–64.Google Scholar
190Nelson, M, White, J, Rhodes, C. Haemoglobin, ferritin, and iron intakes in British children aged 12–14 years: a preliminary investigation. Br. J. Nutr. 1993; 70: 147–55.Google Scholar
191Little, P, Barnett, J, Margetts, B, Kinmonth, AL, Gabbay, J, Thompson, R, et al. The validity of dietary assessment in general practice. J. Epidemiol. Community Health 1999; 53: 165–72.Google Scholar
192Ritenbaugh, C, Aicken, M, Taren, D, Teufel, N, Graver, E, Woolf, K, Alberts, DS. Use of a food frequency questionnaire to screen for dietary eligibility in a randomised cancer prevention phase III trial. Cancer Epidemiol. Biomark. Prev. 1997; 6: 347–54.Google Scholar