¹ Philadelphia School of Design for Women (hereafter PSDW), Catalogue (Philadelphia, 1919), 22. Major primary sources for this article included: PSDW directors’ minutes, admissions records 1880–1932, and printed catalogs, all at Moore College of Art and Design, Archives, Philadelphia (hereafter MCAD); data on three sample sets of PSDW students, traced in the 1880, 1900, and 1920 manuscript population schedules, U.S. Bureau of the Census, microfilm, National Archives and Records Service, Washington, D.C.; personal interviews with five PSDW alumnae; and the Anna Wharton Morris Papers, Friends Historical Library (FHL), Swarthmore, Pa.Google Scholar

² Solomon, Barbara Miller In the Company of Educated Women: A History of Women and Higher Education in America (New Haven, Conn., 1985); Gordon, Lynn D. Gender and Higher Education in the Progressive Era (New Haven, Conn., 1990); Cott, Nancy F. The Grounding of Modern Feminism (New Haven, Conn., 1987), 40. In 1880, 1.9 percent of women aged eighteen to twenty-one were enrolled nationally in postsecondary institutions, a figure that rose to 7.6 percent by 1920. Normal or junior colleges, probably including design schools, accounted for only 10.9 percent of women enrolled in 1880, 8.9 percent in 1900, and 7.5 percent in 1920. Mabel Newcomer, A Century of Higher Education for American Women (New York, 1959), 46, 49.Google Scholar

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⁴ On Philadelphia's class structure, see Blumin, Stuart The Emergence of the Middle Class: Social Experience in the American City, 1760–1900 (Cambridge, Eng., 1989). On family strategies, see Ryan, Mary P. Cradle of the Middle Class: The Family in Oneida County, New York, 1790–1865 (Cambridge, Eng., 1981); Allmendinger, David F. “Mount Holyoke Students Encounter the Need for Life Planning, 1837–1850,” History of Education Quarterly 19 (Spring 1979): 27–46; Goldin, Claudia “Family Strategies and the Family Economy in the Late Nineteenth Century: The Role of Secondary Workers,” in Philadelphia: Work, Space, Family, and Group Experience in the Nineteenth Century: Essays toward an Interdisciplinary History of the City, ed. Hershberg, Theodore (New York, 1981).Google Scholar

⁵ On PSDW's early history, see de Angeli Walls, Nina “Art and Industry in Philadelphia,“ Pennsylvania Magazine of History and Biography 117 (July 1993): 177–99; on Women's Medical College, see Morantz-Sanchez, Regina Markell Sympathy and Science: Women Physicians in American Medicine (New York, 1985); on Girls’ High and Normal School, see Custis, J. T. The Public Schools of Philadelphia (Philadelphia, 1897), 153–76. For an extended development of themes treated in this article, see de Angeli Walls, Nina “Art, Industry, and Women's Education: Philadelphia's School of Design for Women, 1848–1932” (Ph.D. diss., University of Delaware, in progress).Google Scholar

⁶ Enrollments from PSDW admissions records and directors’ minutes; on the “new era,” see Knauff, Theodore C. Experiment in Training for the Useful and the Beautiful: A History (Philadelphia, 1922), 88, 93.Google Scholar

⁷ Age and residence data from PSDW manuscript admissions records, and manuscript population census, 1880–1920, U.S. Bureau of the Census.Google Scholar

⁸ Hershberg, Theodore et al., “A Tale of Three Cities,” in Philadelphia: Work, Space, Family; Newmark, David “An Analysis of the Student Body of the Philadelphia Normal School,“ Educational Administration and Supervision 11 (Sep. 1925): 399–416.Google Scholar

⁹ Solomon, Educated Women; Gordon, Gender and Higher Education; and Gordon, Lynn D. “Annie Nathan Meyer and Barnard College,“ History of Education Quarterly 26 (Winter 1986): 503–22.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

¹⁰ On occupational stratification, see Hershberg, et al., “Three Cities”; and Licht, Walter Getting Work: Philadelphia, 1840–1950 (Cambridge, Mass., 1992). Occupations of household heads in my samples are from manuscript population schedules, 1880, 1900, and 1920, U.S. Bureau of the Census.Google Scholar

¹¹ Issel, William “Modernization in Philadelphia School Reform, 1882–1905,“ Pennsylvania Magazine of History and Biography 94 (July 1970): 358–83; PSDW, directors’ minutes, 1917–18; see also Nina de Angeli Walls, “The Politics of Industrial Art” (paper delivered at the Pennsylvania Historical Association Annual Meeting, Villanova, Pa., 1992).Google Scholar

¹² PSDW “Financial Report,“ 1865 in Pennsylvania Legislative Documents, no. 21 (Harrisburg, Pa., 1866). PSDW records listing public scholarship students by name begin in 1887.Google Scholar

¹³ Class list, 1852, Records of the Franklin Institute Committee on the School of Design, Franklin Institute Archives, Philadelphia. Manuscript population schedules, 1860, Philadelphia, 13th ward, 459, U.S. Bureau of the Census, listed Margaret Peddle as a “teacher of drawing”; on Peddle's contract, see PSDW, “Annual Report,” 1862, MCAD. On the Oakfords, see Blumin, Middle Class, 74 211; and Philadelphia Monthly Meeting (Hicksite), in Hinshaw, W. W. Encyclopedia of American Quaker Genealogy (Ann Arbor, Mich., 1938), 2: 811.Google Scholar

¹⁴ Not listed in the 1870, 1880, or 1900 census indexes, Phillips may have been the West Philadelphia dressmaker by the same name listed in Gopsill's Philadelphia City Directory (Philadelphia, 1900), 1815. Clark's, C. H. window-shade establishment appeared in Gopsill's 1882 Directory. Google Scholar

¹⁵ On the Morris and Wharton families, see Morris Papers; also Morris, Harrison S. Confessions in Art (New York, 1930); and Wright, Catharine Morris The Color of Life (Boston, 1957), 7. PSDW, Catalogue (1887), 28–29, listed graduates from 1877 to 1886.Google Scholar

¹⁶ On age norms, see Kett, Joseph F. Rites of Passage: Adolescence in America, 1790 to the Present (New York, 1977); and Chudacoff, Howard P. How Old Are You? Age Consciousness in American Culture (Princeton, N.J., 1989). PSDW, Catalogue (1919), 22. On evening and Saturday classes, see PSDW, Catalogue (1920–21), 5. For national college enrollment statistics, see Newcomer, Higher Education, 46.Google Scholar

¹⁷ Goodman, Helen “Women Illustrators,“ Woman's Art Journal (Spring/Summer 1987), 13–22; Brown, Ann Barton Charlotte Harding: An Illustrator in Philadelphia: The Exhibition, March 20 through May 23, 1982 (Chadds Ford, Pa., 1982); Brown, Ann Barton Alice Barber Stephens: A Pioneer Woman Illustrator (Chadds Ford, Pa., 1984).Google Scholar

¹⁸ Belcher, Gerald and Belcher, Margaret Collecting Souls, Gathering Dust: The Struggles of Two American Artists, Alice Neel and Rhoda Medary (New York, 1991); Rhoda Myers Medary also attended PSDW; on the Murdock family, see manuscript population schedules for 1920, Philadelphia e.d. 1635, U.S. Bureau of the Census, 2.Google Scholar

¹⁹ Warner, Sam Bass Jr., Streetcar Suburbs: The Process of Growth in Boston, 1870–1900, 2d ed. (Cambridge, Mass., 1978); Warner, Sam Bass Jr., The Private City: Philadelphia in Three Periods of Its Growth, 2d ed. (Philadelphia, 1987); Cutler, William W. and Gillette, Howard eds., The Divided Metropolis: Social and Spatial Dimensions of Philadelphia, 1800–1975 (Westport, Conn., 1980); Hershberg, ed., Philadelphia: Work, Space, Family. Google Scholar

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²⁵ PSDW, student registers, 1920–22, MCAD, listed Loeb in 1920, Gelb in 1921, and Andrassy in October 1922; each left during the fall term; Theresa Bernstein, The Journal (Cranbury, N.J., 1991), 22–37. On the Graphic Sketch Club, see Edward Longstreth, “Democracy in Art,” Art and Archaeology 21 (Apr. 1920): 220–28; and Watts, Harvey M. “A Triumphant Art Training Experiment,” Arts and Decoration 15 (June 1921): 90–91, 118, 143.Google Scholar

²⁶ PSDW “Annual Report,“ 1854 17; on earlier policies, see PSDW, Minutes of Lady Managers, 9 Dec. 1850, 20, Historical Society of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia; PSDW, directors’ minutes, 13 Sep. 1852, 51; and Franklin Institute, First Annual Report… Committee on the School of Design (1852), 2, 4.Google Scholar

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²⁹ In 1875, 655 females attended high school in Philadelphia, 2.7 percent of the number in primary schools; 29.8 percent of primary school students went on to grammar schools. “Editorial Department: Philadelphia Statistics,” Pennsylvania School Journal 25 (July 1876): 37. Philadelphia Board of Education, Annual Report (1876), 51, lists Girls’ High attendance and graduation figures from 1848 to 1876. Of Central High parents between 1838 and 1920, 70–75 percent came from the nonmanual sector. David F. Labaree, The Making of an American High School: The Credentials Market and Central High of Philadelphia, 1839–1939 (New Haven, Conn., 1988), esp. 40, 53. See also Tyack, David The One Best System: A History of American Urban Education (Cambridge, Mass., 1974).Google Scholar

³⁰ PSDW, admissions records, give details on scholarship holders.Google Scholar

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³² On the “new woman,” see, for example, Cott, Modern Feminism; and Meyerowitz, Joanne J. Women Adrift: Independent Wage Earners in Chicago, 1880–1930 (Chicago, 1988).Google Scholar

³³ Institute, Franklin Proceedings… School of Design for Women, 27.Google Scholar

³⁴ Wright, Color of Life, 54.Google Scholar

³⁵ McClelland, Dorcas Doolittle interview with the author, 9 Oct. 1991; Beatrice Hedley Kirkbride, interview with the author, 9 Mar. 1992. Belcher, and Belcher, Collecting Souls, 9, cite the hat rule also. On the Goodell family, see also Morris, Anna Wharton Journals, Jan. 1914, Jan. 1915, v. 10, pp. 60, 114, FHL; Anne Goodell's sister Margaret was a close friend of Catharine Morris.Google Scholar

³⁶ Pettes, Alicia McCaffrey interview with the author, 11 Mar. 1992. “Miss Bowman” may refer to Emma J. Buckman, who taught lettering, ornament, and design from 1915 to 1946; Katherine Nassau van Roekens, interview with the author, 9 Mar. 1992.Google Scholar

³⁷ Roekens, Van interview, 1992; Kirkbride, interview, 1992.Google Scholar

³⁸ PSDW, directors’ minutes, 16 Jan. 1923, 71 (new rules); ibid., Nov. 1922, 51 (2 expelled); ibid., Dec. 1922, 67; ibid., 3 Feb. 1923; PSDW, “Student Records,” 1902–27, 199, 204, MCAD; McClelland interview, 1991.Google Scholar

³⁹ Stahl, Louise Zimmerman interview with the author, 18 May 1993; Belcher, and Belcher, Collecting Souls, 10.Google Scholar

⁴⁰ Kirkbride, interview, 1992; Kirkbride, Beatrice Hedley Autobiographical ms., c. 1987 (transcript in author's possession); on the Public Industrial Art School, see Lerman, “‘Useful Knowledge.’”Google Scholar

⁴¹ Solomon, Educated Women, 146 243, cites Reynolds, O. Edgar The Social and Economic Status of College Students (New York, 1927), on relatively high family incomes of women attending private colleges.Google Scholar

⁴² Blumin, Middle Class, 11.Google Scholar

⁴³ Muncy, Robyn Creating a Female Dominion in American Reform, 1890–1935 (New York, 1991), xiii.Google Scholar

⁴⁴ Blumin, Middle Class, 191.Google Scholar