3.1. The governing equations

The linear temporal viscous shear instability of airflow over a water surface is examined here under the following assumptions. In both fluids, the mean flow is unidirectional with prescribed vertical profiles $U_{a,w}(z)$ and the static mean pressure distribution is given by $P(z)= -\rho _{a,w}gz$ , $z=0$ corresponding to the undisturbed air–water interface. Here, the subscripts ‘ $a$ ’ and ‘ $w$ ’ refer to air and water, respectively. The perturbations of the surface elevation $\eta$ , the horizontal $u$ and vertical $w$ velocity components and pressure $p$ at any prescribed real wavenumber $k$ are assumed to be two-dimensional in the vertical plane and harmonic in space and time. Those perturbations thus take the form

(3.1) \begin{equation} \begin{aligned} \eta (x,t) & =\tilde {\eta }(z){\textrm e}^{{\textrm i}(kx-\omega t)};\quad u(x,z,t)=\tilde {u}(z){\textrm e}^{{\textrm i}(kx-\omega t)}; \\ w(x,z,t) & =\tilde {w}(z){\textrm e}^{{\textrm i}(kx-\omega t)};\quad p(x,z,t)=\tilde {p}(z){\textrm e}^{{\textrm i}(kx-\omega t)}, \end{aligned} \end{equation}

where $x$ is the streamwise coordinate, $\omega$ is the complex frequency and tildes denote complex amplitudes. The disturbance streamfunctions in both fluids are defined as

(3.2) \begin{equation} \psi _{a,w}(x,z,t) = \tilde {\phi }_{a,w}(z) {\textrm e}^{{\textrm i}(kx-\omega t)}. \end{equation}

The eigenfunction $\tilde {\phi }_{a,w}(z)$ and the velocity components are related by

(3.3) \begin{equation} \tilde {u}(z) = \tilde {\phi}^{\prime}_{a,w}(z);\quad \tilde {w}(z) = -{\textrm i}k\tilde {\phi }_{a,w}(z), \end{equation}

where the prime denotes the vertical derivative of $\tilde {\phi }_{a,w}(z)$ . In the presence of non-zero wind-induced surface drift velocity $U_d$ , the linearised kinematic boundary condition at the free surface $z=0$ relates the amplitudes of the vertical velocity at the interface and of the surface elevation as

(3.4) \begin{equation} \frac {\partial \eta }{\partial t} + U_d \frac {\partial \eta }{\partial x} = w_{a,w} \end{equation}

so that the amplitude of the perturbed surface elevation is

(3.5) \begin{equation} \tilde {\eta }(c-U_d) = \tilde {\phi }_{a,w}(z=0). \end{equation}

As shown by Valenzuela (Reference Valenzuela1976), in those variables, linearisation of the Navier–Stokes equations leads to the OS equations in air and water:

(3.6) \begin{equation} {\textrm i}\nu_{a,w}\big(\tilde{\phi}^{iv}_{a,w}-2k^2\tilde{\phi}^{\prime\prime}_{a,w} +k^4\tilde{\phi}_{a,w}\big)+k\big[\big(U_{a,w}-c\big)\big(\tilde{\phi}^{\prime\prime}_{a,w}-k^2\tilde{\phi}_{a,w}\big) - U^{\prime\prime}_{a,w}\tilde{\phi}_{a,w}\big] = 0. \end{equation}

Here, $\nu _{a,w}$ are the kinematic viscosities of both fluids; the complex phase velocity $c=\omega /k$ . The OS equation (3.6) can be rendered dimensionless using $1/k$ as the length scale, $1/\omega^{\prime}$ as the time scale and the phase velocity $c^{\prime}=\omega^{\prime}/k$ as the velocity scale, where $k$ and $\omega '$ are related by the linear dispersion relation for water of depth $h$ where $\sigma$ is the surface tension coefficient of water:

(3.7) \begin{equation} \omega '^2 = gk\bigg (1+\frac {\sigma k^2}{g}\bigg )\tanh {kh}. \end{equation}

Dimensionless coupled OS equations in air and in water are

(3.8) \begin{equation} {\textrm i}Re_{a,w}^{-1}\big(\phi ^{iv}_{a,w}-2\phi ^{\prime \prime }_{a,w} +\phi _{a,w}\big)+\bigg [\bigg (\frac {U_{a,w}-c}{c'} \bigg )(\phi ^{\prime \prime }_{a,w}-\phi _{a,w}) - \frac {U^{\prime \prime }_{a,w}}{c'k^2}\phi _{a,w} \bigg ] = 0. \end{equation}

Here, $Re_{a,w}=c'/\nu _{a,w} k$ are the Reynolds numbers in air and water.

In most computations, both air and water domains are assumed to be semi-infinite, with all disturbances vanishing far away from the interface located at $z=0$ , i.e. $\phi _{a,w}(z)=\phi^{\prime} _{a,w}(z)=0$ for $z\rightarrow \pm \infty$ .

The OS equations (3.8) are coupled at the unknown air–water interface $z=\eta (x,t)$ through a set of boundary conditions that are linearised via a Taylor expansion about the unperturbed surface $\eta =0$ . Continuity of the horizontal shear stress component leads to the linearised boundary condition at the interface:

(3.9) \begin{equation} \mu \bigg (f_a^{\prime \prime }+f_a + \frac {U_a^{\prime \prime }}{c'k^2} \bigg ) = f_{w}^{\prime \prime } + f_w + \frac {U_w^{\prime \prime }}{c'k^2}. \end{equation}

Continuity of the vertical velocity component and of the normal stress leads to

(3.10) \begin{equation} \begin{aligned} f_w^{\prime }\bigg (\frac {c-U_{w}(0)}{c^{\prime} }\bigg ) & + f_w \frac {U_w^{\prime }}{c^{\prime} k}+{\textrm i}Re_{w}^{-1}\big(3f_w^{\prime }-f_w^{\prime \prime \prime }\big)-F \\ =\rho \bigg ( f_a^{\prime } \bigg (\frac {c-U_{a}(0)}{c^{\prime} }\bigg ) & + f_a \frac {U_a^{\prime }}{c^{\prime} k}+{\textrm i}Re_{a}^{-1}\big(3f_a^{\prime }-f_a^{\prime \prime \prime }\big)-F\bigg )+W; \quad \text{at} \quad z=0. \end{aligned} \end{equation}

Here, $F=gk/\omega '^2$ is the inverse squared Froude number, $W=\sigma k^3/\rho _w \omega '^2$ is the inverse Weber number, $\rho =\rho _a/\rho _w$ is the density ratio and $\mu =\mu _a/\mu _w$ is the viscosity ratio. For more details on the boundary condition, see Valenzuela (Reference Valenzuela1976).

Non-trivial solutions of (3.8) subject to the appropriate boundary conditions and prescribed mean velocity profiles in air and water $U_{a,w}(z)$ only exist for a selected wavenumber $k$ for complex eigenfrequencies $\omega =\omega (k)$ and eigenfunctions $\phi _{a,w}(z)$ . The real part of the complex eigenfrequency, $\omega _r(k)$ , represents the radian frequency of the disturbance, while the imaginary part, $\omega _i(k)$ , characterises the temporal growth rate of the wavenumber harmonic $k$ . The dimensional eigenfunctions $\tilde {\phi }_{a,w}(z)$ are proportional to the disturbance amplitude $\tilde {\eta }$ (see (3.5)). Since both the coupled governing OS equations and the associated boundary conditions are linear, the disturbance amplitude of $\tilde {\eta }=10^{-4}$ m is adopted for scaling and quantitative estimates. This choice ensures that the wave steepness $k\tilde {\eta }$ remains small across the entire range of wavelengths considered.

3.2. Numerical scheme

The coupled OS eigenvalue problem is solved using the numerical method described in detail in Zeisel et al. (Reference Zeisel, Stiassnie and Agnon2008). Computations are performed within the truncated vertical domain $-z_\infty \lt z\lt z_\infty$ , where $z_\infty =10$ is adopted following Zeisel et al. (Reference Zeisel, Stiassnie and Agnon2008). The computational domain is divided into three subdomains: one in water $z\leq 0$ , and two in air, the first within the viscous sublayer with height $z_{1}$ , $0\leq z \leq z_1$ , and the other beyond the viscous sublayer, $z_1\lt z\leq z_\infty$ . Within each region, the computational grid is based on Chebyshev polynomials that are orthogonal in the interval $x\in [-1,1]$ . The dimensionless vertical coordinates $z$ are transformed to the Chebyshev polynomial arguments $x$ according to the mapping defined for each subdomain as

(3.11) \begin{equation} z = \begin{cases} {(x-1)z_\infty }/{2}, & -z_\infty \leq z\leq 0,\\ {(x+1)z_1}/{2}, & 0 \leq z\leq z_1,\\ {(x-1)(z_\infty -z_1)}/{2}+z_1, & z_1 \leq z\leq z_\infty .\end{cases} \end{equation}

Each subdomain is discretised using $N$ equally spaced collocation points, where $N$ ranges from 250 to 650 in the present simulations. The values of the Chebyshev polynomials are evaluated at all collocation points within each subdomain. The iterative procedure begins with an initial guess for the complex frequency $\omega$ , chosen to be close to the value predicted by the linear dispersion relation (3.7) for the selected wavenumber $k$ , but perturbed by a small imaginary component to account for potential growth or decay. Given this initial guess, the corresponding eigenfunctions $\phi _{a,w}$ are computed. The accuracy of the eigenvalue estimate is assessed by substituting the computed solution to the boundary condition at the air–water interface, (3.10), and evaluating the residual error. The complex frequency $\omega$ is then updated at each iteration using the secant method to minimise this residual. The final solution consists of the complex eigenfunctions $\phi _{a,w}$ and complex frequency $\omega$ that satisfy the governing equations and all boundary conditions for the given wavenumber $k$ .

3.3. Shapes of velocity profiles

The governing coupled OS equations in air and water, (3.8), along with the boundary conditions at the air–water interface, (3.9) and (3.10), are formulated under the assumption that the mean velocity profiles in air, $U_a(z)$ , and in water, $U_w(z)$ , are prescribed. In the following, forms of these profiles that are consistent with typical laboratory-scale conditions are considered.

It is well established that the results of stability analysis based on the coupled OS framework are sensitive to the assumed shape of the mean velocity profile in air (Kawai Reference Kawai1979; van Gastel et al. Reference van Gastel, Janssen and Komen1985; Wheless & Csanady Reference Wheless and Csanady1993). Away from the interface, the wind velocity $U_a(z)$ for a given friction velocity $u_{\ast }$ follows a logarithmic dependence on elevation $z$ , consistent with the mean turbulent velocity profile over a smooth rigid surface:

(3.12) \begin{equation} U_a(z)=\frac {u_{\ast }}{\kappa } \ln {z^+} + Bu_{\ast } ,\end{equation}

where $z^+=zu_{\ast }/\nu _a$ is the dimensionless wall-normal coordinate in wall units $\nu _a/u_{\ast }$ , $\kappa = 0.42 \pm 0.1$ is the von Kármán constant and $B$ is an empirical constant typically in the range 5–5.5 (White Reference White1991). However, the precise structure of the mean velocity profile in the immediate vicinity of the air–water interface remains uncertain, owing to the complex interplay between turbulence, interfacial shear and wave-induced motion in this region. In the present study, friction velocities in the range 0.1 $\lt u_{\ast }\lt$ 0.5 m s⁻¹ are considered. The wind shear causes shear flow in water as well; the surface drift velocity $U_d$ is assumed to be a fraction of $u_{\ast }$ , the values of $U_d/u_{\ast }$ ranging from 0.1 to 0.5 are examined.

3.3.1. Air velocity profiles over smooth water surface

For a flow over a smooth surface, Miles (Reference Miles1957b ) proposed a mean profile in air that smoothly connects the air–water interface with the logarithmic profile via a linear domain adjacent to the water surface. Incorporating the mean water surface drift velocity $U_d$ , the so-called lin-log profile suggested by Miles is

(3.13) \begin{equation} U_a(z)=\begin{cases} U_d+u_{\ast }z^+, & \text{$z^+\leq z_1^+$},\\ U_d+m u_{\ast } + \frac {u_{\ast }}{\kappa } \bigg [ \alpha -\tanh {\left(\frac {\alpha }{2}\right)} \bigg ] , & \text{$z^+ \geq z_1^+$}, \end{cases} \end{equation}

where $\alpha$ = $\sinh ^{-1}{\beta }$ ; $\beta =2\kappa (z^+-z_1^+)$ ; $z_1$ = $m$ . The parameter $m$ defines the thickness of the viscous sublayer that may vary in the range $m\approx 5$ to $8$ ; the value of $m=5$ is adopted in the present study.

In an alternative approach, van Driest (Reference van Driest1956) applied Prandtl’s mixing-length theory and proposed an air velocity profile over a smooth surface based on the numerical solution of the turbulent boundary-layer equations:

(3.14) \begin{equation} U_a(z)=2u_{\ast } \int _{0}^{z^+} \frac {1}{1+\sqrt {1+4\kappa ^2{z^+}^2(1-\exp {(-z^+/A)})^2}} \,{\textrm d}z^+ + U_d. \end{equation}

The shape of this profile, hereafter referred to as $vD$ , closely resembles the lin-log profile given in (3.13), but features a thinner viscous sublayer. Nevertheless, like the lin-log profile, it is characterised by zero curvature at the air–water interface, $U_a^{\prime \prime }(z=0)=0$ . The damping parameter $A=26$ used in the van Driest formulation (3.14) is based on experiments (Thomas & Hasani Reference Thomas and Hasani1989; Andersen, Kays & Moffat Reference Andersen, Kays and Moffat1995). Unlike for the lin-log profile, which exhibits discontinuity in its second derivatives at $z^+=m$ , the van Driest profile is smooth, with continuous derivatives across the entire domain. It is important to emphasise that the surface drift velocity $U_d$ at the interface is significantly smaller compared with the free air stream velocity $U_{max}$ . Although the inclusion of $U_d$ has a negligible effect on the air velocity profile at elevations well above the interface, it substantially influences the velocity distribution in the near-interface region, affecting the flow in both the air and water layers.

3.3.2. Air velocity profiles over wavy water surface

The initially smooth water surface rapidly becomes disturbed under the action of an impulsively applied wind. Short capillary–gravity ripples composed of multiple harmonics appear instantaneously and begin to grow (Caulliez, Ricci & Dupont Reference Caulliez, Ricci and Dupont1998; Shemer Reference Shemer2019), marking the transition from an effectively smooth to a hydrodynamically rough surface. These ripples interact with the turbulent airflow above, inducing modifications in the mean air velocity profile near the interface. Experimental observations demonstrate that the growth rates decrease with increasing wavelength (Larson & Wright Reference Larson and Wright1975; Mitsuyasu & Rikiishi Reference Mitsuyasu and Rikiishi1978; Zavadsky & Shemer Reference Zavadsky and Shemer2017b ; Kumar & Shemer Reference Kumar and Shemer2024b ). Consequently, longer-wave components in the wavenumber spectrum continue to grow over the water surface, which no longer remains smooth.

It is generally accepted that, analogous to airflow over rigid rough surfaces, the mean wind velocity above wind-driven water waves exhibits a logarithmic dependence on the vertical distance from the mean water level. A commonly used representation of this mean velocity profile in field, laboratory and numerical studies of wind waves is

(3.15) \begin{equation} U_a(z)= \frac {u_{\ast }}{\kappa } \ln {\frac {z}{z_0}}, \end{equation}

where $z_0$ denotes the effective roughness parameter. This formulation was initially introduced by Prandtl (Reference Prandtl1932) for turbulent flow over a rough solid surface; here $z_0$ is a complex function of the surface roughness density.

In the case of a wind-driven water surface, the interface is inherently three-dimensional and random. Correlation coefficients of surface elevation fluctuations measured at relatively short temporal and spatial scales effectively vanish, reflecting the stochastic nature of the wave field (Zavadsky & Shemer Reference Zavadsky and Shemer2017a ; Kumar, Singh & Shemer Reference Kumar, Singh and Shemer2022). Nevertheless, detailed measurements of turbulent airflow over such evolving surfaces under steady wind (Zavadsky & Shemer Reference Zavadsky and Shemer2012; Kumar, Geva & Shemer Reference Kumar, Geva and Shemer2023 and references therein) have confirmed the validity of (3.15) even for young, developing wind waves.

Geva & Shemer (Reference Geva and Shemer2022b ) further showed that across a wide range of friction velocities and fetches employed in those experiments, the characteristic roughness parameter $z_0$ is related to the local characteristic amplitude of surface elevation variation in time defined by its root-mean-square value, $\eta _{\textit{rms}}=\overline {\eta (x)^2}^{1/2}$ , as $z_0\approx \eta _{\textit{rms}}/30$ , in agreement with Hudson, Dykhno & Hanratty (Reference Hudson, Dykhno and Hanratty1996). Their results also demonstrated that the turbulent boundary layer above young wind waves under diverse forcing conditions retains wall similarity when expressed in wall units, mirroring the structure of flow over rough solid surfaces. Consequently, the logarithmic profile (3.15) remains applicable for airflow over wind waves, provided appropriate scaling with wave-induced roughness is employed. In wall variables, this profile can be expressed as

(3.16) \begin{equation} U_a^+(z^+)= \frac {1}{\kappa } \ln {z^+} + B -\Delta U^+, \end{equation}

where $\Delta U^+$ is the Hama (Reference Hama1954) roughness function. For turbulent flow over rough solid surfaces, the profile downshifting $\Delta U^+$ is typically determined by the characteristic roughness scale usually represented by sand-grain roughness height, $k_s$ (Schlichting Reference Schlichting1936; Colebrook & White Reference Colebrook and White1937; Nikuradse Reference Nikuradse1950). In the case of wind waves, $k_s$ is effectively replaced by the root-mean-square surface elevation $\eta _{\textit{rms}}$ , which serves as the relevant roughness scale. In wall units, the characteristic roughness $k_s^+=\eta _{\textit{rms}}^+$ typically falls within the range $\mathcal{O} (10^2{-}10^3)$ , substantially exceeding the height of the viscous sublayer (Schultz & Flack Reference Schultz and Flack2005). For ocean waves, Kitaigorodskii & Donelan (Reference Kitaigorodskii and Donelan1984) categorised surface roughness regimes based on the dimensionless roughness length $z_0^+$ , describing the surface as effectively smooth for $z_0^+\leq 0.1$ , transitional for $z_0^+\lt 2.2$ and fully rough for $z_0^+\geq 2.2$ . Given the empirical relation $\eta _{\textit{rms}}^+=30z_0^+$ , the corresponding thresholds for wind-wave-induced roughness in wall units are $\eta _{\textit{rms}}^+\leq 3$ for the smooth regime, $3\leq \eta _{\textit{rms}}^+\leq 66$ for the transitional regime and $\eta _{\textit{rms}}^+\gt 66$ for the fully rough regime.

Due to the substantial height $k_s$ of roughness elements in wall units, it is customary in boundary-layer flows over rough solid surfaces to introduce a shifted vertical origin, at a certain height $d$ . Jackson (Reference Jackson1981) proposed that this displacement corresponds to the vertical location of the line of action of the resultant drag force F, defined as $d=\int \textit{Fz}\,{\textrm d}z /\int F\,{\textrm d}z$ . Subsequent studies by Yuan & Piomelli (Reference Yuan and Piomelli2014) and Wu & Piomelli (Reference Wu and Piomelli2018) showed that for randomly distributed roughness elements, the virtual origin scales as $d\approx 0.8k_s$ . A similar shift is introduced for airflow over wind waves, where the surface behaves as a dynamically rough boundary. The resulting logarithmic mean velocity profile is expressed as

(3.17) \begin{equation} U_a^+(z^+)= \frac {1}{\kappa } \ln {(z-d)^+} + B -\Delta U^+ = \frac {1}{\kappa } \ln {\left(\frac {z^+-d^+}{\eta _{\textit{rms}}^+}\right)} + 8.5, \end{equation}

where $d^+=0.8\eta _{\textit{rms}}^+$ . This velocity profile is valid at elevations well above the virtual origin $z^{\prime +}=z^+-d^+ \geq \mathcal{O}(10^2)$ . However, the shape of the profile closer to the air–water interface plays a crucial role in the development of shear flow instability (Morland & Saffman Reference Morland and Saffman1993; Wheless & Csanady Reference Wheless and Csanady1993).

Obtaining accurate measurements of the velocity profiles near the air–water interface is particularly challenging due to wave-induced motion and spatial variability. Even for a solid rough surface, the velocity profile in the near-wall region is thus often approximated via empirical or semi-empirical fit (Brereton et al. Reference Brereton, Jouybari and Yuan2021 and references therein). Ligrani & Moffat (Reference Ligrani and Moffat1986) showed that using the mixing-length hypothesis enables the description of the mean velocity profile across the whole range of roughness, from smooth to fully rough regimes.

Van Driest (Reference van Driest1956) suggested a formulation for estimating mean air velocity profiles over smooth to transitional rough surfaces ( $3\leq \eta _{\textit{rms}}^+\leq 66$ ) by adding term $\exp {(-60z^{\prime +}/A\eta _{\textit{rms}}^+)}$ to (3.14). For a fully rough regime ( $\eta _{\textit{rms}}^+\gt 66$ ), modification of the roughness parameter, $R_g^+=0.032\eta _{\textit{rms}}^{+2}$ , is now introduced to improve consistency with the logarithmic region (3.17).

Accordingly, the turbulent mean velocity profiles in air over wind waves are as follows:

(3.18) \begin{equation} U_a(z^{\prime +})=\begin{cases} 2u_{\ast } \!\int _{0}^{z^{\prime +}}\! \frac {1}{1+\sqrt {1+4\kappa ^2{z^+}^2(1-\exp {(-z^+/A)}+\exp {(-60z^+/A\eta _{\textit{rms}}^+)})^2}} \,{\textrm d}z^+ \!+\! U_d, \!&\! {\eta _{\textit{rms}}^+\leq 66},\\ 2u_{\ast } \!\int _{0}^{z^{\prime +}}\! \frac {1}{1+\sqrt {1+4\kappa ^2{z^+}^2(1-\exp {(-z^+/A)}+\exp {(-60z^+/AR_g^+)})^2}} \,{\textrm d}z^+ \!+\! U_d, \!&\! {\eta _{\textit{rms}}^+\gt 66}. \end{cases} \end{equation}

The validity of the velocity profile formulation (3.18) is assessed in figure 1(a) by direct comparison with detailed measurements under controlled laboratory conditions of turbulent air velocity profile for young wind waves reported by Zavadsky & Shemer (Reference Zavadsky and Shemer2012). More recently, the use of advanced optical techniques has enabled air velocity measurements closer to the air–water interface. As demonstrated in figure 1(b), the profiles obtained by Buckley et al. (Reference Buckley, Veron and Yousefi2020) exhibit excellent agreement with the velocity distributions predicted by (3.18), therefore supporting the validity of this formulation in the near-surface region.

Figure 1.

Comparison of mean wind velocity profiles predicted by (3.18) (solid lines) with experimental data (symbols) of (a) Zavadsky & Shemer (Reference Zavadsky and Shemer2012) and (b) Buckley et al. (Reference Buckley, Veron and Yousefi2020). Dashed lines represent the theoretical velocity profile over a smooth surface, (3.14).

3.3.3. Mean water velocity profiles $U_w(z)$ under wind waves

The temporal evolution of the wind-induced currents in water, $U_w(z,t)$ , under a constant wind shear stress is governed by a one-dimensional diffusion equation (Veron & Melville Reference Veron and Melville2001). Zavadsky & Shemer (Reference Zavadsky and Shemer2017b ) derived an analytical solution for $U_w(z,t)$ in response to an impulsively applied, fetch-independent, constant shear stress at the air–water interface. Their laboratory experiments demonstrated that the water surface drift velocity $U_d=U_w(0,t)$ stabilises to a steady value quickly, well before the emergence of significant surface waves. These findings are consistent with the earlier observations of Kawai (Reference Kawai1979) who noted that the mean velocity in water under air-imposed shear slowly, and proposed a steady-state fetch-independent water velocity profile:

(3.19) \begin{equation} U_w(z)= U_d \exp {\bigg ( \frac {\rho _au_{\ast }^2}{U_d\mu _w}z \bigg )}. \end{equation}

This exponentially decaying with depth steady water velocity profile (3.19) has since been adopted in several viscous shear flow instability studies (Wheless & Csanady Reference Wheless and Csanady1993; Zeisel et al. Reference Zeisel, Stiassnie and Agnon2008; Abid et al. Reference Abid, Kharif, Hsu and Chen2022 and references therein).

The observed steady water velocity profiles in laboratory experiments can likely be attributed to the confined geometry of most test facilities, which typically have finite water depths ranging from 0.1 to 0.7 m (Larson & Wright Reference Larson and Wright1975; Plant & Wright Reference Plant and Wright1977; Kawai Reference Kawai1979; Tsanis Reference Tsanis1989; Paquier, Moisy & Rabaud Reference Paquier, Moisy and Rabaud2015; Zavadsky & Shemer Reference Zavadsky and Shemer2017b ). Under such conditions, the application of a steady wind shear stress at the free surface results in a recirculating flow structure, with forward flow near the surface and compensating backflow near the bottom. Paquier et al. (Reference Paquier, Moisy and Rabaud2015) suggested a parabolic velocity profile corresponding to laminar water flow:

(3.20) \begin{equation} U_w(z)= U_d z_h(3z_h-2). \end{equation}

Here, $z_h=z/h$ is the dimensionless depth, $h$ being the flume depth, and $z_h=1$ corresponds to the air–water interface.

For a turbulent water flow regime, the shear stress can be modelled as $\tau =\rho _w \nu _t {\textrm d}U/{\textrm d}z$ , where $\nu _t$ denotes the kinematic eddy viscosity, which is assumed to vary with depth. Adopting a parabolic distribution of eddy viscosity with respect to vertical position, $\nu _t=\xi (z+z_b )(z_s+h-z)$ , Tsanis (Reference Tsanis1989) derived an analytical expression for the depth-dependent mean velocity profile:

(3.21) \begin{equation} U_w(z)= u_{\ast ,w}\int _{0}^{z_h} \frac {\zeta +(1-\zeta )z_h}{\xi (z_h+z_{bh})(z_{sh}+1-z_h)}\,{\textrm d}z_h ,\end{equation}

where $u_{\ast ,w}=(\tau _a/\rho _w )^{1/2}$ is the water-side friction velocity and $z_{bh}$ and $z_{sh}$ are dimensionless constants which mainly influence the return portion of the flow; for more details, see Tsanis (Reference Tsanis1989). In our simulations, the values of empirical parameters $\zeta =-0.235$ , $z_{sh}=0.0163$ , $z_{bh}=z_{sh} |\zeta |^{1/2}$ and $\xi =0.2071$ were selected that satisfy the zero-net-flow condition $\int _{0}^{z_h} U_w \,{\textrm d}z_h=0$ .

Both profiles (3.20) and (3.21) are compared in figure 2 with measurement results obtained in our laboratory facility. Surface drift velocity $U_d$ was determined using particle tracking velocimetry (PTV), while the mean subsurface water velocity induced by steady wind $U_w(z)$ was measured using PIV. Although the PIV measurements are available only for a limited depth range, they provide valuable insight into the flow structure and clearly reveal the presence of reverse flow in the lower part of the test section. A more detailed account of these measurements will be presented elsewhere.

Figure 2.

Comparison of mean water velocity profiles predicted by (3.20) and (3.21) with measurements.

Figure 2 shows that the turbulent flow profile given by (3.21) agrees reasonably well with the measured data. Essential differences are evident between the widely assumed exponential profile (3.19), commonly used in theoretical studies, and the velocity distributions that can more accurately reflect flow behaviour in confined laboratory environments. Although previous studies have suggested that the shape of the subsurface water velocity profile exerts only a minor influence on wind-wave growth, the pronounced differences between profiles (3.19)–(3.21) warrant a re-examination of this assumption. It appears essential to reassess the role of the water velocity profile in the development of air–water shear flow instability, particularly considering the specific operational conditions under which all existing experimental data have been obtained.

4.1. Dependence of OS model solutions on the shape of air velocity profile $U_a(z)$ over smooth water surface

The complex eigenvalues $\omega (k)$ of the coupled OS problem represent the dispersion relation that is modified by wind-induced shear flow in water. The computed values of $\omega (k)$ for the lin-log (3.13) and $vD$  (3.14) mean air velocity profiles, while retaining the exponential velocity profile in water (3.19), are compared first. Simulations are performed over a range of wavelengths, $\lambda =2\pi /k$ , representative of those typically observed in laboratory-scale facilities, $0.005\,\rm m\lt \lambda \lt 1 \,\rm m$ . The temporal wave amplitude growth rates, $\omega _i (k)$ , are non-dimensionalised using the radian frequency at the same wavelength, $\omega _r (k)$ . The results are presented in figure 3 both for air velocity profiles and for three values of friction velocity $u_{\ast }$ . The surface drift velocity is assumed to be $U_d=0.5u_{\ast }$ . Phase velocities derived from the OS model, $c_p (k)=\omega _r(k)/k$ , are also included in the figure.

For all wavelengths $\lambda$ , the values of $2\pi \omega _i/\omega _r$ , which represent the characteristic growth rate scaled by the wave period, increase notably with the increase in the friction velocity $u_{\ast }$ . For shorter waves in the gravity–capillary wavelength domain, the maximum relative growth rates computed using the $vD$ air velocity profile are somewhat higher and attained at slightly shorter wavelengths than those obtained for the lin-log profile at the same values of $u_{\ast }$ . At all $u_{\ast }$ values shown in figure 3, the relative growth rates for waves with lengths $\lambda \lt 0.07$ m obtained using $vD$ airflow profile are somewhat larger than those for the lin-log profile, whereas the opposite is true for longer gravity waves. However, the difference in relative growth rates between the two air velocity profiles does not exceed about $15\,\%$ across the entire range of wavelengths $\lambda$ considered. The phase velocity $c_p (k)$ is largely insensitive to the shape of the air velocity profile, with only minor variations observed at higher values of $u_{\ast }$ for longer waves.

Figure 3.

Dimensionless temporal growth rates (solid lines, left axis) and phase velocities $c_p(k)$ (dashed lines, right axis) as a function of wavelength, for two air velocity profiles over a smooth surface. Results are shown for friction velocities $u_{\ast }$ of (a) 0.25, (b) 0.35 and (c) 0.45 m s⁻¹, with the surface drift velocity assumed to be $U_d=0.5u_{\ast }$ . Black, lin-log air profile; red, $vD$ air profile.

The distributions of the magnitudes of the dimensionless eigenfunctions $\phi _{a,w}(z)$ obtained by solving the coupled OS equations (3.8) for both lin-log and $vD$ air velocity profiles are shown in figure 4 for two wavelengths $\lambda$ , plotted as a function of dimensionless vertical coordinate $kz$ . The figure clearly indicates that the distributions of $|\phi _{a,w}(kz)|$ are practically insensitive to the specific form of the air velocity profile $U_a(z)$ , with only minor differences observed near the maxima of the eigenfunctions in the air domain. The shapes and maximum values of the eigenfunction magnitudes in air $|\phi _{a}(kz)|$ are nearly identical for both profiles across the two wavelengths. Figure 4 shows that in air, the eigenfunction penetrates to elevations around the wavelengths $\lambda$ , while in water $|\phi _{w}(kz)|$ remain significant at both wavelengths up to depths of $\lambda /2$ . Since the coupled OS equations are solved in non-dimensional form (3.8), the resulting eigenfunctions $|\phi _{a,w}(kz)|$ also appear similar in their non-dimensional representations, as seen in figures 4(a) and 4(b).

The relatively minor effect of the wavelength $\lambda$ on the solution of dimensionless coupled OS equations arises from two main factors: the variation in the Reynolds number in the viscous part of the equations, and the wavelength-dependent phase propagation velocity $c_p$ , which is used to non-dimensionalise the velocity profiles and their derivatives.

The zoomed-in insets of figure 4 present the dimensional distributions of the magnitudes of the eigenfunctions, emphasising their variations within submillimetre distances from the interface, where viscous effects are most pronounced.

Miles (Reference Miles1957a ) demonstrated that the exchange of energy and momentum between wind and waves, driven by inviscid shear flow instability described by the Rayleigh equation, occurs primarily within a thin region near the air–water interface, known as the critical layer. The critical height, $z_c$ , is defined as the elevation where the mean flow velocity matches the phase velocity $c_p$ of the disturbance. Hristov et al. (Reference Hristov, Miller and Friehe2003) further showed that, for a harmonic unstable under inviscid shear flow, the magnitude of the complex eigenfunction in air, $|\phi _a|$ , exhibits a local minimum at or near the critical height $z_c$ . The insets of figure 4, where the values of $z_c$ are marked, demonstrate that this characteristic feature persists within the framework of coupled viscous OS equations.

Figure 4.

Comparison between the shape of dimensionless eigenfunction magnitudes $|\phi _{a,w}|$ based on lin-log and $vD$ profiles for $u_{\ast }=0.35$ m s⁻¹: (a) $\lambda = 0.02$ and (b) $\lambda = 0.50$ m. The zoomed-in insets show dimensional distributions close to the air–water interface; dashed line, critical layer height $z_c$ .

The vertical distributions of the non-dimensional amplitudes of the horizontal $\tilde {u}/c'$ and vertical $\tilde {w}/c'$ velocity components can be computed from the eigenfunctions using (3.3). In the scaling adopted here, the magnitudes of the dimensionless vertical velocity component $\tilde {w}(z)/c'$ and of the eigenfunctions $\phi (z)$ are identical in both the air and water domains; therefore, $\tilde {w}(z)/c'$ is not plotted separately. The vertical distributions of the dimensionless horizontal velocity component $\tilde {u}(z)/c'$ are plotted in figure 5 for the same conditions as in figure 4.

Comparison of figures 4 and 5 demonstrates that both velocity profiles are largely insensitive to the exact shape of the air velocity profile $U_a(z)$ near the air–water interface, where the lin-log and $vD$ profiles differ. While the vertical air velocity component $w_a$ varies smoothly, the horizontal component $u_a$ exhibits a sharp peak at the interface, with magnitudes of $|\tilde {u}(z=0)/c'|\approx 110$ for $\lambda =2$ cm and $|\tilde {u}(z=0)/c'|\approx 730$ for $\lambda =50$ cm. Beyond the interface region, the horizontal air velocity decreases rapidly, reaching a local minimum that is close to zero at a dimensionless elevation $kz\approx 0.2$ for $\lambda =2$ cm and $kz\approx 0.1$ for $\lambda =50$ cm.

The significantly larger horizontal velocity perturbation on the air side of the interface compared with the water side can be attributed to the continuity condition for the total horizontal velocity at the instantaneous interface $\eta (x)$ , which, after linearisation, takes the form

(4.1) \begin{equation} \frac {\tilde {u}_w}{c'}+\frac {U_w}{c'}+\frac {\eta U^{\prime}_w}{c'k} = \frac {\tilde {u}_a}{c'}+\frac {U_a}{c'}+\frac {\eta U^{\prime}_a}{c'k};\quad z=0. \end{equation}

Since the mean velocity is continuous at the interface, $U_w (z=0)=U_a(z=0)$ , but ${\textrm d}U_w/{\textrm d}z(z=0) \gg {\textrm d}U_a/{\textrm d}z(z=0)$ due to viscosity difference between water and air, a jump in the perturbation component at the interface between the two fluids, $\tilde {u}(z=0)/c'$ , is needed to satisfy the continuity of the velocity boundary condition.

Away from the interface, the horizontal $u$ and vertical $w$ disturbance velocity components in air exhibit similar spatial structures for the two prescribed base velocity profiles. However, a quantitative difference is observed in the variations of the dimensionless amplitudes $\tilde {u}_a (z)/c'$ and $\tilde {w}_a (z)/c'$ , with maximum values of approximately $\max(\tilde {u}_a (z)/c') \approx 8$ and $\max(\tilde {w}_a (z)/c') \approx 5$ . The dimensionless horizontal velocity component $u_a$ rapidly decays with height, becoming nearly wavelength-independent at elevations beyond a few $zk$ units and essentially vanishing around $zk\approx 2\pi$ . In the water domain, the magnitude of $\tilde {w}_w (z)$ is significantly smaller and becomes negligible at dimensionless depths exceeding $\pi$ .

Figure 5.

Vertical distribution of the magnitude of horizontal $|u/c'|$ dimensionless velocity component; conditions as in figure 4.

The phases of horizontal and vertical velocity components are defined by (3.3) relative to that of the surface elevation (3.5); $\theta _{\tilde {u}}=\arg {(\tilde {u}/\tilde {\eta })}$ and $\theta _{\tilde {w}}=\arg {(\tilde {w}/\tilde {\eta })}$ are plotted in figure 6. The variation of both phases with the elevation above the air–water interface $z$ is qualitatively similar for the two wavelengths considered. The phase of the horizontal velocity $\theta _{\tilde {u}}$ that has the value of $-\pi$ deep in water, starts to increase continuously near the interface and attains a constant positive value above the critical layer. Notably, for the longer wavelength (figure 6 b), the variation of $\theta _{\tilde {u}}(z)$ above the critical height is non-monotonic. The continuous variation of $\theta _{\tilde {u}}(z)$ in figure 6(a,b) is qualitatively different from that predicted by the inviscid theory result, which exhibits discontinuity in $\theta _{\tilde {u}}$ at the critical height $z_c$ for unstable disturbances. Similarly, the phase of the vertical velocity component $\theta _{\tilde {w}}(z)$ for both wavelengths shown in figure 6(c,d) varies smoothly from $-\pi /2$ to a value somewhat below $\pi /2$ near $z_c$ . However, compared with $\theta _{\tilde {u}}$ , this transition occurs at the minimum of the eigenfunction (see insets of figure 4); this elevation is much closer to the interface, and slightly below the critical height. This difference in the vertical variation of phases of the two velocity components results in variation with $z$ of the phase difference between $\tilde {u}$ and $\tilde {w}$ in the vicinity of $z_c$ .

Figures 3–6 clearly demonstrate that the differences in the complex eigenvalues $\omega$ and eigenfunctions $\phi _{a,w}(z)$ obtained using the lin-log and $vD$ air velocity profiles, as well as in the profiles of both the magnitudes and the phases of the disturbance velocity components that are determined by $\phi _{a,w}(z)$ and its derivative, are practically not affected by the mean air velocity profile. Thus, in the remainder of this work, we adopt only the more physically justified $vD$ air velocity profile.

Figure 6.

Vertical distributions of the phases of the (a,c) horizontal and (b,d) vertical velocity components; conditions as in figure 4. Solid line, viscous sublayer height $z_{visc}$ ; dashed line, critical layer height $z_c$ .

4.2. Coupled OS solutions for conditions encountered in laboratory experiments

We now proceed to examine the OS-based model for conditions that realistically may be expected in laboratory experiments. The following aspects are considered: the effect of finite length and depth of test sections in the laboratory facilities on the mean water velocity profile $U_w(z)$ ; the dependence of $U_w(z)$ on the wind-induced surface drift velocity $U_d$ ; as well as the appearance of ripples at the water surface shortly after application of wind.

4.2.1. Effect of water velocity profile

It is widely accepted that the specific form of the mean water velocity profile has little influence on the growth rate of wind waves (Kawai Reference Kawai1979; van Gastel et al. Reference van Gastel, Janssen and Komen1985 and references therein). In deep water, the commonly used exponential water velocity profile (3.19) is generally considered adequate. However, in wind-wave fields in experimental facilities of finite depth, the velocity profiles given by expressions (3.20) or (3.21) may be more appropriate. Assessment of the effect of finite water depth on the inviscid shear flow instability that has been considered by Young & Wolfe (Reference Young and Wolfe2014) and Kadam, Patibandla & Roy (Reference Kadam, Patibandla and Roy2023), and references therein, is extended here for the case of viscous shear flow instability.

The growth rates and phase velocities over a range of wavelengths $\lambda$ for a reverse-flow water velocity profile given by (3.21) are compared in figure 7 with those computed for the exponential profile in water, (3.19). The differences in the dimensional energy growth rates $2\omega _i$ plotted in figure 7(a) are relatively minor. For short gravity–capillary waves, the values of $2\omega _i$ computed using the exponential profile are slightly higher than those obtained with the reverse-flow profile. For longer and deeper propagating waves with $\lambda \gtrsim 10$ cm that approach the intermediate-depth limit, the effect reverses: replacing $U_w(z)$ from (3.19) with that from (3.21) results in somewhat higher energy growth rates.

Unlike the dimensional growth rates, the shape of the water velocity profile has a notable impact on the dispersion relation. Wave frequencies computed using the reverse-flow profile are consistently lower across all wavelengths than those obtained using the exponentially decaying profile (see figure 7 b). This frequency reduction is due to the reverse flow at the bottom of the tank, which introduces a Doppler-like effect. For waves in the intermediate-depth regime, this reverse current leads to a stronger effect of the chosen velocity profile $U_w(z)$ on the dimensionless growth rate $2\pi \omega _i/\omega _r$ as shown in figure 7(c).

Figure 7.

The effect of the water velocity profile $U_w (z)$ for the $vD$ air velocity profile; $u_{\ast }=0.35$ m s⁻¹, $U_d=0.5u_{\ast }$ : (a) dimensional energy growth rate $2\omega _i$ ; (b) dispersion relation $\omega _r/k$ ; (c) dimensionless growth rate $2\pi \omega _r/\omega _r$ . Red, exponential water profile (3.19); green, reverse-flow water profile (3.21).

The dependence of the viscous shear flow instability on the adopted water velocity profiles $U_w(z)$ arises from their influence on the OS eigenfunction in both air and water. Figure 8 presents the result on $|\phi _{a.w} (z)|$ for two selected wavelengths $\lambda$ . In air, the absolute value of $|\phi _a (z)|$ remains practically unaffected by the shape of $U_w (z)$ at both wavelengths $\lambda$ . In water, the distributions $|\phi _w (z)|$ are more sensitive to the shape of the velocity profile $U_w (z)$ , particularly for the longer and deeper penetrating wave, as shown in figure 8(b) and its zoomed-in inset.

Figure 8.

Shapes of the magnitudes of eigenfunction for $vD$ air velocity profile over smooth water surface for exponential (3.19) and reverse-flow (3.21) profiles in water; $u_{\ast } = 0.35$ m s⁻¹: (a) $\lambda = 0.02$ and (b) $\lambda = 0.50$ m.

4.2.2. Dependence of OS solution on the assumption regarding the drift velocity $U_d$

Valenzuela (Reference Valenzuela1976) demonstrated that the presence of shear flow in water leads to higher growth rates compared with those obtained for a stagnant water surface, as originally considered by Miles (Reference Miles1962). Measurements of the temporal variation of the mean surface drift velocity $U_d$ under impulsively applied wind over initially quiescent water surface showed that $U_d$ attains a quasi-steady value of approximately $0.5u_{\ast }$ within a few seconds after wind initiation (Zavadsky & Shemer Reference Zavadsky and Shemer2017b ). These findings are consistent with earlier laboratory results reported by Kawai (Reference Kawai1979). In contrast, Liu, Guo & Li (Reference Liu, Guo and Li2022) observed significantly lower drift velocities, of the order of $U_d\approx 0.2u_{\ast }$ . In a theoretical study, van Gastel et al. (Reference van Gastel, Janssen and Komen1985) investigated the effects of higher values of $U_d$ ranging from $0.5u_{\ast }$ to $0.8u_{\ast }$ , concluding that although this increase in $U_d$ had only a minor effect on the temporal growth rate, it significantly affected the wave phase velocity.

Motivated by the available experimental observations, the effect of the adopted surface drift to friction velocity ratio $U_d/u_{\ast }$ on the OS problem solution is examined in figure 9. The dimensionless growth rates increase with $U_d/u_{\ast }$ across all wavelengths. For the lowest considered drift velocity $U_d=0.1u_{\ast }$ , the growth rates are significantly reduced, rendering longer waves with $\lambda \gt 0.2$ m stable. As the drift velocity increases, the wavelength corresponding to the most unstable mode shifts slightly to longer wavelengths, from 0.02 to 0.04 m for the range of $U_d/u_{\ast }$ considered. However, the influence of the ratio $U_d/u_{\ast }$ on the dispersion relation is limited, affecting only very short waves. As a result, the phase velocity $\omega _r/k$ of longer waves with $\lambda \gtrsim 0.1$ m remains essentially unchanged for those waves, as shown in figure 9(b).

Figure 9.

Effect of surface drift velocity $U_d$ on wave instability characteristics in deep water for the exponential water velocity profile (3.19) and the friction velocity $u_{\ast } = 0.35$ m s⁻¹: (a) dimensionless temporal energy growth rate; (b) phase velocity $\omega _r/k$ .

The presence of reverse water flow in a test section of finite depth can significantly influence the OS instability characteristics associated with variations in the adopted surface drift velocity, as illustrated in figure 10. Figure 10(a) demonstrates that a substantial change in the ratio $U_d/u_{\ast }$ from 0.1 to 0.5 has little effect on the dimensional energy growth rate $2\omega _i$ for all wavelengths, nor does it alter the wavelength corresponding to the most unstable disturbance. However, the variation in $U_d/u_{\ast }$ markedly affects the dispersion relation: as $U_d/u_{\ast }$ increases, the wave frequency decreases for all wavelengths, as seen in figure 10(c). Consequently, the dimensionless growth rate plotted in figure 10(b) decreases with increasing $U_d/u_{\ast }$ , in contrast to the trend observed in figure 9(a) for the deep-water case.

Figure 10.

Effect of surface drift velocity $U_d$ on wave characteristics for the velocity profile $U_w (z)$ given by (3.21) and $u_{\ast } = 0.35$ m s⁻¹: (a) dimensional energy growth rate $2\omega _i$ ; (b) dispersion relation $\omega _r/k=c(\lambda )$ ; (c) dimensionless growth rate $2\pi \omega _i/\omega _r$ .

4.2.3. Temporal growth of waves due to wind over wavy water surface

The mean velocity profiles and the boundary conditions must be modified in the presence of waves on the water surface. Following the approach outlined in § 3.3.2, the region $-d\lt z\lt d$ , where $d=0.8\eta _{\textit{rms}}$ , is excluded from the analysis.

The boundary conditions are applied not at the interface $z=0$ but at virtual origins $z^{\prime}_a$ , $z^{\prime}_w=0$ positioned in air and water at $z_{a,w}=\pm d$ , respectively (see figure 11). In the air, the velocity profile $U_a(z^{\prime}_a)$ is assumed to follow the upward-shifted form given by (3.17). In the water, the shapes of the mean velocity profiles $U_w(z^{\prime}_w)$ given by (3.19) and (3.21) are preserved, but they are shifted downward to align with their virtual origin.

Figure 11.

Schematic of the mean turbulent velocity profiles in air and water in the presence of wavy water surface. The solid lines denote the virtual origins in air and water, with $d=0.8\eta _{\textit{rms}}$ .

Under those assumptions, the influence of surface waves on the solution of the coupled OS equations is analysed for different wavelengths and compared with the case of a smooth water surface as shown in figure 12. The temporal growth rates $\omega _i$ normalised by their smooth-surface counterparts $\omega _{i,0}$ are presented for three selected values of effective roughness $\eta _{\textit{rms}}^+$ . Results are shown for two cases: an exponential water velocity profile given by (3.19) (figure 12 a) and the profile (3.21) in the presence of reverse water flow (figure 12 b). The dispersion relation determined by the real part of the eigenvalue $\omega _r$ is expressed as the phase velocity $c(k)=\omega _r/k$ and plotted in the insets of each panel. These insets indicate that variations in roughness have a negligible effect on the phase velocity, as the curves for different values of $\eta _{\textit{rms}}^+$ collapse on a single line. However, the impact of the presence of waves on the growth rate is more noticeable and increases with $\eta _{\textit{rms}}^+$ . Even so, the relative reduction in the growth rate does not exceed approximately $40\,\%$ and tends to plateau for longer waves. The influence of the specific form of the water velocity profile on these trends is minimal. Interestingly, for relatively short waves (approximately 10 cm $\lesssim \lambda \lesssim$ 25 cm), low roughness can even lead to a minor increase in the growth rate ratio, as illustrated by the red line in figure 12(a).

Figure 12.

Variation with $\lambda$ of relative temporal growth rate and phase velocity for $vD$ air velocity profile in the presence of surface roughness: (a) exponential water profile (3.19) and (b) reverse-flow water profile (3.21); $u_{\ast } = 0.35$ m s⁻¹.

4.3. The energy balance for unstable modes

The full solutions of the coupled OS equations accumulated in this study are now utilised to gain an insight into the mechanisms governing the energy transfer between wind and unstable water-wave harmonics. The kinetic energy of an initially small unstable perturbation with wavenumber $k$ , averaged over its wavelength $\lambda =2\pi /k$ , is given by

(4.2) \begin{equation} E(k,t)= \frac {1}{2\lambda }\int _{0}^{\lambda } \bigg \{ \int _{-\infty }^{0}\rho _w\big(u_w^2+w_w^2\big) \,{\textrm d}z + \int _{0}^{\infty }\rho _a\big(u_a^2+w_a^2\big) \,{\textrm d}z \bigg \}\,{\textrm d}x. \end{equation}

Here, $u_{a,w}$ and $w_{a,w}$ are the disturbance velocity components in air and water, respectively. For an unstable harmonic, the perturbation kinetic energy $E(k,t)$ in air and in water grows exponentially with time at the rate $2\omega _i$ ; the energy influx is continuously supplied by the mean airflow. Following the approach developed in Hooper & Boyd (Reference Hooper and Boyd1987) and Boomkamp & Miesen (Reference Boomkamp and Miesen1996), the scalar product of the linearised Navier–Stokes momentum equations in air and in water with the corresponding velocity vector components is calculated and integrated over the whole domain. The spatially averaged over a wavelength rate of change of the kinetic energy of unstable disturbances in air and water $E(k,t)$ that grow exponentially in time as ${\textrm e}^{2\omega _i t}$ is thus obtained:

(4.3) \begin{equation} \begin{aligned} & \underbrace {\frac {2\omega_i}{\lambda }\int _{-\infty }^{\infty } \int _{0}^{\lambda }\frac {\rho (z)}{2}\big(u_{a,w}^2+w_{a,w}^2\big)\,{\textrm d}z\,{\textrm d}x}_{{\textit{I}}} = \underbrace {\frac {1}{\lambda }\int _{-\infty }^{\infty } \int _{0}^{\lambda } \rho (z) \big( -u_{a,w} w_{a,w} {U^{\prime}_{a,w}}\big) \,{\textrm d}z\,{\textrm d}x}_{{\textit{II}}} \\& \quad +\, \underbrace {\frac {1}{\lambda }\int _{-\infty }^{\infty } \int _{0}^{\lambda } \mu (z) (2(\partial _xu_{a,w})^2+(\partial _zu_{a,w}+\partial _xw_{a,w})^2+2(\partial _zw_{a,w})^2) \,{\textrm d}z\,{\textrm d}x}_{{\textit{III}}} \\& \quad +\, \underbrace {\frac {1}{\lambda } \int _{0}^{\lambda } \big(u_w T_w^{xz}-u_a T_a^{xz}\big)_{z=0} \,{\textrm d}x}_{{\textit{IV}}} + \underbrace {\frac {1}{\lambda } \int _{0}^{\lambda } \big(w_w T_w^{zz}-w_a T_a^{zz}\big)_{z=0} \,{\textrm d}x}_{{\textit{V}}} .\end{aligned} \end{equation}

The tangential $T_{a,w}^{xz}$ and normal $T_{a,w}^{zz}$ components of the stress tensor of the perturbed flow in air and water are

(4.4a) \begin{align} T_{a,w}^{xz} = \mu (z) (\partial _zu_{a,w} + \partial _xw_{a,w}), \end{align}

(4.4b) \begin{align} T_{a,w}^{zz} = -\frac {p_{a,w}}{\rho (z)} + 2\mu (z)\partial _z w_{a,w}, \end{align}

and $p_{a,w}$ denotes the pressure perturbation; $\rho (z)=\rho _a$ and $\mu (z)=\mu _a$ in air $(z\gt 0)$ and $\rho (z)=\rho _w$ and $\mu (z)=\mu _w$ in water $(z\lt 0)$ .

The rate of change of wavelength-averaged kinetic energy of the disturbance in air and in water per unit width, represented by term $I$ on the left-hand side of (4.3) is equivalent to multiplying $E(k,t)$ as defined by (4.2) by the energy growth rate, $2\omega _i$ , which is identical for air and water. Each term on the right-hand side of (4.3) is now examined separately for both fluids, using the $vD$ air velocity profile (3.14) and the exponential water velocity profile (3.19). For a constant disturbance amplitude $\tilde {\eta } =0.1$ mm, each energy budget term represents an energy flux per unit area. As shown in figure 5, the amplitudes of the velocity components increase with wavelength and extend vertically to heights of $\mathcal{O}(\lambda )$ . Consequently, longer waves require higher rates of energy input to sustain their growth compared with shorter waves. To facilitate comparison of the relative contributions of the various terms to the energy balance across the range of wavelengths, each term is normalised by the total kinetic energy in air and in water as defined by (4.2). This normalisation reflects the contribution of each term to the growth of a harmonic per unit wave energy.

In the vicinity of the interface, the phase difference between $u$ and $w$ varies with elevation $z$ , giving rise to effective perturbation Reynolds stresses. It is important to note that, unlike in turbulent flows, these Reynolds stresses arise from deterministic, phase-resolved disturbances. The production term $II$ in (4.3) represents the energy transfer between the mean flow and perturbation by the resulting Reynolds shear stress. This term may contribute to either the growth or attenuation of the disturbance energy, depending on the sign. In the inviscid analysis by Miles (Reference Miles1957a ), the negative air velocity profile curvature at the critical height that for an unstable harmonic is always above the viscous sublayer thickness, $z_c\gt z_{visc}$ resulting in a positive and independent of $z$ averaged over the wavelength Reynolds stress, $\tau _a=-\rho _a \overline {u_a w_a}$ . In the present framework of the coupled viscous OS equations, for both wavelengths in the gravity–capillary wave (figure 13 a) and in the gravity wave (figure 13 b) ranges, a region adjacent to the interface also exists where $\tau _a$ remains constant and positive for unstable harmonics. However, $\tau _a$ vanishes at elevations exceeding a few millimetres. Both the vertical extent of this region and the critical height $z_c$ are confined within the viscous sublayer $z_{visc}$ , indicating that this instability mechanism operates within a thinner near-surface layer. Buckley & Veron (Reference Buckley and Veron2016) presented direct measurements of Reynolds stresses over wind waves. They showed that for young wind waves, the normalised wave stress is positive below the critical layer and negative above it, leading to an overall negative wave-perturbation stress. This distribution resembles the Reynolds shear stress profile depicted in figure 13(a). Their results align with earlier work by Yang & Shen (Reference Yang and Shen2010) and references therein, highlighting the consistency of these observations across different studies.

Figure 13.

The vertical distribution of spatially averaged Reynolds stress in air, $\tau _a$ , for the $vD$ air velocity profile (3.14); $u_{\ast }= 0.35$ m s⁻¹, $U_d=0.5u_{\ast }$ : (a) $\lambda = 0.02$ ; (b) $\lambda = 0.50$ m. The black dashed line indicates the viscous sublayer thickness $z_{visc}$ , and the red dashed line marks the critical height $z_c$ .

The contribution to the perturbation kinetic energy growth rate production by the Reynolds stress in the bulk of the fluid, term $II$ , as a function of wavelength, is plotted in figure 14 in air and in water for $u_{\ast }=0.35$ m s⁻¹. For the range of wavelengths considered here, term $II$ is always positive in water and negative in air. The kinetic energy production by Reynolds stress in air thus contributes to the suppression of perturbations, while in water, this term causes energy transfer from the mean flow to disturbances. Note that in the framework of the inviscid Rayleigh equation, the effect of the Reynolds stresses in air is opposite; it is positive and supports wave growth (Boomkamp Reference Boomkamp1993).

Figure 14.

The rate of energy transfer by the perturbation Reynolds stress, term $II$ in (4.3), as a function of wavelength $\lambda$ : (a) in air; (b) in water. Flow conditions as in figure 13.

The negative contribution of viscous dissipation in the bulk of both fluids to the growth of kinetic energy as a function of wavelength, term $III$ in (4.3), is shown in figure 15 separately for air and water for $u_{\ast } = 0.35$ m s⁻¹. In water, the contribution of this term decreases monotonically with $\lambda$ , while the rate of the bulk viscous dissipation in air increases drastically up to $\lambda \sim 1.5$ cm and then decreases monotonically with $\lambda$ .

Figure 15.

The rate of bulk viscous dissipation, term $III$ in (4.3), as a function of wavelength $\lambda$ ; $u_{\ast }$ = 0.35 m s⁻¹: (a) in air and (b) in water.

The transfer of perturbation kinetic energy across the air–water interface is now examined. The rates of energy transfer via tangential stress, term $IV$ , and normal stress, term $V$ , are presented separately in air and in water domains in figures 16 and 17. The contribution of term IV to the perturbation kinetic energy in air initially increases with wavelength, reaching a peak at $\lambda \sim 1.5$ cm and then decreases monotonically. This positive contribution dominates across all wavelengths, consistently exceeding in magnitude the negative contribution from the normal stresses presented by term $V$ . Notably, the contribution of term $V$ increases monotonically with wavelength, crossing from negative to positive at about $\lambda =0.4$ m; however, its magnitude remains negligibly small throughout, as shown in the inset of figure 16(b). The net energy input into the air through the interface, driven primarily by tangential stress, constitutes the main source for the growth of the total kinetic energy of air disturbances.

Figure 16.

The rate of kinetic energy transfer by (a) tangential, term $IV$ , and (b) normal, term $V$ , stresses to disturbance in air at the interface, as a function of wavelength $\lambda$ . The zoomed-in inset in (b) shows the variation of the magnitude of term $V$ that is positive for $\lambda \gt 0.4$ m. Flow conditions as in figure 13.

Unlike in air, both the sign and the relative contribution of tangential and normal stresses to the rate of change of the kinetic energy of perturbation in water vary significantly with wavelength (see figure 17). The contribution of tangential stress, term $IV$ , is positive for very short waves; but becomes negative in the range of 0.035 m $\lt \lambda \lt$ 0.23 m. For waves longer than about 0.3 m, it again becomes positive and exceeds the contribution of the normal stress, term $V$ , which remains negligible. This behaviour is illustrated in the inset of figure 17, which zooms in on the variation of terms IV and V in water for $\lambda \gt 0.1$ m.

Figure 17.

The rate of energy transfer to disturbance in water at the interface by tangential, term $IV$ (solid line), and normal, term $V$ (dashed line), stresses as a function of wavelength $\lambda$ . The zoomed-in inset shows the variation of terms $IV$ and $V$ that are positive for $\lambda \gt 0.1$ m. Flow conditions as in figure 13.

The total rate of change of the perturbation kinetic energy $\dot {E}_T$ is presented in figure 18(a) as a function of the wavelength, along with the separate contributions of the values of $\dot {E}$ in air and water domains. The rate of change of kinetic energy in both fluids attains a maximum at around $\lambda =1.5$ cm and then decreases. As illustrated in figure 18(b), the kinetic energy growth rate in air is notably higher than that in water across all wavelengths (see figure 18 b).

Figure 18.

(a) The rate of change of total kinetic energy $\dot {E}$ in air and in water per unit total wave energy and (b) the relative growth rate of the perturbation kinetic energy in air and in water. Flow conditions as in figure 13.

The analysis of the terms in the energy balance equation (4.3) is now extended to elucidate the origin of the pronounced effect that reverse flow in water exerts on the solutions of the coupled OS equations. Figure 19 presents a comparison of these terms for two water velocity profiles: the exponentially decaying profile given by (3.19) and the profile with reverse flow, (3.21), while the $vD$ air velocity profile, (3.14), is retained. Additional computations were also carried out using the water velocity profile given by (3.20), which similarly incorporates reverse water flow that is unavoidable in a finite-sized test section. The variation with wavelength of terms $II{-}V$ in (4.3) for air presented in figure 19 reveals relatively minor changes, quantitative rather than qualitative, resulting from the presence of the reverse water flow. This limited sensitivity likely reflects the fact that the air velocity profile remains unchanged in both cases.

Figure 19.

Variation with the wavelength of the terms in (4.3) for the rate of change of the kinetic energy in air: (a) bulk production by Reynolds stress $II$ , (b) bulk dissipation $III$ , (c) tangential stress at the interface $IV$ and (d) normal stress at the interface $V$ . Red, exponential water profile (3.19); green, reverse-flow water profile (3.21). The zoomed-in inset in (d) shows the variation of term $V$ that is positive in air for $\lambda \gt 0.4$ m.

In contrast to the air domain, in water, the behaviour of the contributions to the rate of the perturbation kinetic energy in the presence of reverse flow by different terms in (4.3) is notably more significant, as shown in figure 20. The bulk production by the Reynolds stress, term $II$ , in water is significant and positive across all wavelengths for the exponentially decaying water profile (3.19). In contrast, for the reverse-flow profile (3.21), this term remains positive but quite small, as shown in figure 20(a). The bulk viscous dissipation rate, term $III$ , shown in figure 20(b), exhibits qualitatively similar behaviour for both velocity profiles, decreasing monotonically with increasing wavelength $\lambda$ . However, for waves longer than about 0.06 m, the dissipation in the presence of reverse flow is notably weaker. This reduction is attributed to the fact that longer waves penetrate deeper into the water column, reaching depths where the backflow alters the structure of the eigenfunction. In the presence of reverse flow, the energy transfer rates at the interface by both the tangential, term $IV$ , and the normal, term $V$ , stresses in water remain significant and positive at all wavelengths, as shown in figures 20(c) and 20(d), respectively.

Figure 20.

As in figure 19, for water. The zoomed-in insets in (c,d) show the variation of the magnitude of terms $IV$ and $V$ in water for $\lambda \gt 0.1$ m; conditions and colour scheme as in figure 19.

Figure 21 illustrates the effect of the water velocity profile on the vertical distribution of the contribution to energy production by the deterministic Reynolds stress in both air and water. While there is no notable modification of this contribution on the air side, in water, the considerable positive energy production associated with the exponentially decaying profile effectively vanishes when the parabolic velocity profile characterised by reverse flow is adopted.

Figure 21.

Vertical distribution of the wavelength-averaged contribution to the production term in air and in water, calculated as $(1/\lambda )\int _{0}^{\lambda } \rho (z) ( -u_{a,w} w_{a,w} {U^{\prime}_{a,w}}){\textrm d}x$ . Results are shown for the $vD$ air velocity profile (3.14), $u_{\ast }= 0.35$ m s⁻¹, $U_d=0.5u_{\ast }$ , $\lambda =0.02$ m: (a) exponential water velocity profile (3.19); (b) reverse-flow water velocity (3.21).

To assess the relative contribution of each term to the rate of change of perturbation kinetic energy in water, terms $II{-}V$ are normalised by the respective growth rates $2\omega _i$ such that the sum of all terms at each wavelength equals unity. The resulting plots for the exponential and reverse-flow profiles in water are shown in figure 22. A clear qualitative difference in the wavelength dependence of each term is observed in both cases.

For the exponential profile, it is evident from figure 22(a) that for waves in the range of about 0.023 $\lt \lambda \lt$ 0.75 m, the perturbation energy in water is supplied primarily by production due to deterministic Reynolds stress in the bulk of water. For longer waves, however, the positive contribution of the energy transfer through the interface, mainly via tangential stress, becomes the dominant mechanism driving the instability in water. The relative negative contribution of bulk viscous dissipation in water increases with wavelength, following a trend similar to the increasing contribution of tangential stress.

In contrast, for the reverse flow in water the bulk production term in water alone cannot overcome the bulk viscous dissipation, even for relatively short wavelengths. As a result, the energy transfer from air to water through the interface, primarily by tangential stress, term $IV$ , but also with an increased contribution from normal stress, term $V$ , serves as the major mechanism supporting the growth of perturbation in water, as shown in figure 22(b).

Figure 22.

Rate of different energy terms in water for (a) exponential and (b) reverse-flow water velocity profiles; conditions and colour scheme as in figure 19.

Finally, the effect of surface roughness on the rate of change of perturbation kinetic energy in air is examined using the energy balance equation. Figure 23 compares the relative contribution of each energy term in (4.3) for air velocity profiles corresponding to a smooth, (3.14) (figure 23 a), and a rough, (3.18) (figure 23 b), water surface. In both cases, the velocity profile in water is given by (3.19). Each term is normalised by the rate of energy transfer from air, $\dot {E}(\lambda )$ , so that their sum equals unity. Since the water velocity profile remains unchanged, the rate of change of energy contribution in water is nearly identical in both cases and is not plotted again.

The pattern of variation of the relative contribution of various terms in both panels of figure 23 is similar. As shown in figures 16 and 19, the dominant contribution to the perturbation energy growth in air arises from the tangential interfacial stress, term $IV$ , while the contribution from normal stresses, term $V$ , is negligible. In contrast, within water, although smaller in magnitude, the normal stress, term $V$ , contribution remains non-negligible (see figure 22).

In the presence of surface roughness, the qualitative variation of each energy term with wavelength remains similar to that of the smooth-surface case, but the magnitude of all terms is reduced. This reduction is attributed to the presence of small-amplitude waves acting as rough surface elements at the air–water interface, primarily altering the interfacial stress. As a result, the energy transfer from air to water is reduced, ultimately leading to a lower overall energy perturbation growth rate, as illustrated in figure 12. The effect is reflected in the reduced relative contribution of term $IV$ over rough (figure 23 b) water surface as compared to the smooth (figure 23 a) water surface.

Figure 23.

Rate of change of kinetic energy in air due to terms $II{-}V$ in (4.3) over (a) smooth and (b) rough ( $\eta _{\textit{rms}}^+=360$ ) water surface as a function of wavelength $\lambda$ ; $u_{\ast } = 0.35$ m s⁻¹.