Introduction
Herbicide resistance in annual bluegrass populations of managed turfgrass has been well documented (Brosnan et al. Reference Brosnan, Elmore and Bagavathiannan2020a). Annual bluegrass has evolved resistance to nine different herbicidal modes of action in managed turfgrass systems (Heap Reference Heap2025). Although herbicide-resistant annual bluegrass has been reported nationally, infestations are most abundant within bermudagrass (Cynodon spp.) and zoysiagrass (Zoysia spp.) stands on golf courses in the southeastern United States (Allen et al. Reference Allen, Ervin, Frisvold, Brosnan, McCurdy, Bowling, Patton, Elmore, Gannon, McCarty, McCullough, Kaminski, Askew, Kowalewski, Unruh, McElroy and Bagavathiannan2022; McCurdy et al. Reference McCurdy, Bowling, de Castro, Patton, Kowalewski, Mattox, Brosnan, Ervin, Askew, Goncalves, Elmore, McElroy, McNally, Pritchard, Kaminski and Bagavathiannan2023; Rutland et al. Reference Rutland, Bowling, Russell, Hall, Patel, Askew, Bagavathiannan, Brosnan, Gannon, Gonçalves, Hathcoat, McCarty, McCullough, McCurdy, Patton, Unruh and McElroy2023).
Fraise mowing is a turfgrass cultivation practice that harvests all aboveground biomass (i.e., leaf tissue, stolons, thatch) and the uppermost layer of the soil profile (McCauley et al. Reference McCauley, Pinnix and Miller2019). When fraise mowing is performed during optimal growing conditions, rhizome growth facilitates turfgrass recovery, particularly in warm-season species such as hybrid bermudagrass in as quickly as 17 d (Brosnan and Breeden Reference Brosnan and Breeden2024). However, slower growing species (and/or cultivars) may require more time to recover from fraise mowing. For example, common bermudagrass [Cynodon dactylon (L.) Pers ‘Vamont’] required 98 d to recover from fraise mowing to a 1.5-cm depth in June compared with 52 d for the TifSport hybrid (Carroll et al. Reference Carroll, Brosnan, Unruh, Stephens, McKeithen and Boeri2021). With Tifway hybrid bermudagrass, recovery was reported 21 d after fraise mowing to depths of 0.5 to 1.3 cm (McCauley et al. Reference McCauley, Pinnix, Miller and Heitman2025). Although equipment such as the KORO FIELDTOPMAKER (Imants, Campey Turf Care, Macclesfield, Cheshire, U.K.) can remove the uppermost 5 cm of a turfgrass surface during fraise mowing, deeper fraise mowing depths have been associated with slower recovery (Carroll et al. Reference Carroll, Brosnan, Unruh, Stephens, McKeithen and Boeri2021; McCauley et al. Reference McCauley, Pinnix, Miller and Heitman2025).
Several studies have explored fraise mowing as a mechanical tool for annual bluegrass control in turfgrass (Brosnan et al. Reference Brosnan, Breeden, Zobel, Patton and Law2020b; Brosnan and Breeden Reference Brosnan and Breeden2024; Carroll et al. Reference Carroll, Brosnan, Unruh, Stephens, McKeithen and Boeri2021). Annual bluegrass cover in spring was significantly reduced in both Vamont common bermudagrass (by 93% to 97%) and TifSport hybrid bermudagrass (by 41% to 78%) following June fraise mowing the previous summer at depths of 1.5 and 3.0 cm (Carroll et al. Reference Carroll, Brosnan, Unruh, Stephens, McKeithen and Boeri2021). Reductions in annual bluegrass following summer fraise mowing to a 3.0-cm depth were not statistically different from those observed with fraise mowing to a 1.5-cm depth. Similarly, no differences in annual bluegrass control were observed with summer fraise mowing to depths of 0.8 or 1.5 cm on Tifway hybrid bermudagrass putting green collars; annual bluegrass control ranged from 81% to 93% from 133 d to 238 d after fraise mowing (Brosnan and Breeden Reference Brosnan and Breeden2024).
Summer fraise mowing provides a mechanism for removing annual bluegrass seed from turfgrass systems. Debris generated after fraise mowing zoysiagrass (Zoysia japonica Steud. ‘Meyer’) contained 28% annual bluegrass seed, in addition to seed from other monocot and dicot weeds (Brosnan et al. Reference Brosnan, Breeden, Zobel, Patton and Law2020b). Fraise mowing a zoysiagrass research plot to a 2.5-cm depth (1.5 cm of verdure + 1.0 cm of soil) did not reduce the soil seedbank, which suggests that the process may have removed the seeds that were within the thatch layer between the verdure and soil surface (Brosnan et al. Reference Brosnan, Breeden, Zobel, Patton and Law2020b). Similarly, annual bluegrass control following fraise mowing of hybrid bermudagrass collars surrounding putting greens was suggested to be a function of mechanical removal of plants persisting in collars on a perennial basis as well as seed removal (Brosnan and Breeden Reference Brosnan and Breeden2024). Considering that a single annual bluegrass plant can produce >6,000 seed (Vukovic Reference Vukovic2023), fraise mowing provides a useful herbicide resistance management tool for turfgrass managers aiming to reduce the soil seedbank (Norsworthy et al. Reference Norsworthy, Ward, Shaw, Llewellyn, Nichols, Webster, Bradley, Frisvold, Powles, Burgos, Witt and Barrett2012).
Harvest weed seed control measures (e.g., narrow windrowing chaff, burning chaff, cover crop residue collection, etc.) in agronomic cropping systems are optimally used in conjunction with both preemergence and postemergence herbicides to manage resistance (Norsworthy et al. Reference Norsworthy, Korres, Walsh and Powles2016). Some researchers have suggested that fraise mowing could be used in a similar manner to control annual bluegrass (Baker et al. Reference Baker, Owen and Woollacott2005). To fully develop a herbicide resistance management strategy using fraise mowing and herbicides, more information is needed to better understand how susceptible annual bluegrass is to various herbicides after fraise mowing. If fraise mowing was implemented on a turfgrass stand where herbicide resistance has been confirmed in annual bluegrass, we wondered whether fraise mowing would reduce the population to the extent that herbicides that were originally rendered ineffective at a given site due to resistance would now offer utility for annual bluegrass control.
We hypothesized that summer fraise-mowing of a hybrid bermudagrass stand with annual bluegrass that demonstrated multiple-herbicide resistance would partially restore the activity of herbicides employing various modes of action. This paper presents the results of repeated field experiments conducted from 2024 through 2026 to explore that hypothesis in detail.
Materials and Methods
Field research was conducted on a hybrid bermudagrass (Tifway) golf course fairway at the Montgomery Bell State Park Golf Course, in Burns, Tennessee (36.09°N, 87.26°W). Soil at the site consisted of 9.6% Hawthorne (loamy-skeletal, siliceous, semiactive, thermic Typic Dystrudepts)-Sulphura (loamy-skeletal, siliceous, semiactive, thermic Typic Dystrudepts) association, and 90.4% Sengtown gravelly silt loam (fine, mixed, semiactive, thermic Typic Paleudalfs). This medium was pH 5.5, with 4.7% organic matter and a total exchange capacity of 14 meq 100 g−1. Supplemental nutrition was not applied during the course of the study and the site received rain only, with no supplemental irrigation.
Research was conducted in a fairway where annual bluegrass was confirmed to be resistant to herbicides from Groups 2, 3, 5, and 29 as categorized by the Weed Science Society of America (WSSA) (Peterson et al. Reference Peterson, Shoup, Thompson and Jugulam2015), with non–target site resistance via elevated cytochrome P450 expression postulated as a potential mechanism (Brosnan et al. Reference Brosnan, Vargas, Breeden, Smith, Mahey and Patterson2024). A section of this hybrid bermudagrass fairway (8 × 30 m) was fraise-mowed on June 18, 2024, using a KORO FTM 1.6 (Campey) fraise mower equipped with a universe rotor (Campey) containing 10-mm-thick blades. The instrument was set to remove the uppermost 1.3 cm of the turfgrass surface with debris (containing leaf and stolon tissue, thatch, and soil), which was collected and discarded offsite (Figure 1). Fraise mowing was performed on June 23, 2025, in an identical manner.
Fraise mowing conducted at the Montgomery Bell State Park Golf Course (Burns, Tennessee) on June 18, 2024. The KORO fraise mower (Imants, Campey, Rocky Mount, NC) was configured to remove the uppermost 1.3 cm of the turfgrass surface with debris collected and disposed offsite.
Herbicide treatments for annual bluegrass control were applied to plots (1.5 × 1.8 m) within the fraise-mowed section of the fairway. Plots were arranged in a randomized complete block design with four replications. Herbicide treatments included several active ingredients that offer soil residual activity against annual bluegrass. These included prodiamine (1,120 g ha−1, Barricade 65WG; Syngenta Professional Products, Greensboro, NC), oxadiazon (2,240 g ha−1, Ronstar 2G; Bayer Environmental Sciences, Cary, NC), indaziflam (49 g ha−1, Specticle Flo; Envu Environmental Sciences, Cary, NC), simazine (1,120 g ha−1, Princep 4FL; Syngenta), metribuzin (525 g ha−1, Sencor 75DF; Envu), pronamide (1,170 g ha−1, Kerb SC TandO; Corteva AgriScience, Indianapolis, IN), and tetflupyrolimet (400 g ha−1, Dodhylex; FMC Corporation, Philadelphia, PA). Additionally, herbicides with postemergence activity on annual bluegrass were also evaluated including glyphosate (1,120 g ha−1, Ranger Pro; Bayer CropScience, St. Louis, MO), glufosinate (1,720 g ha−1, Cheetah Pro; NuFarm Americas, Alsip, IL), diquat dibromide (560 g ha−1, Reward; Sygenta Professional Products, Greensboro, NC), flumioxazin (420 g ha−1, Sureguard SC; NuFarm Americas, Alsip, IL), foramsulfuron (29 g ha−1, Revolver; Envu), and thiencarbazone + foramsulfuron + halosulfuron (6.9 + 13.9 + 21.6 g ha−1, respectively) (Tribute Total; Envu). These herbicides were selected to represent active ingredients from WSSA Groups 2, 3, 5, 9, 10, 14, 22, 28, and 29. Application rates represented maximums listed on the product labels for annual bluegrass control in turfgrass. Simazine, flumioxazin, diquat dibromide, and thiencarbazone + foramsulfuron + halosulfuron were mixed with a nonionic surfactant (Activator 90; Loveland Products, Loveland, CO) at 250 mL L−1 according to the label directions.
Previous research identified that annual bluegrass emerges most rapidly when 24-h soil temperatures (at a 5-cm depth) are ≤18.9 C for 7 d that include precipitation (Taylor et al. Reference Taylor, Prorock, Horvath and Brosnan2021). These edaphic parameters were achieved at this site during the window of October 11 through 17, 2024. Herbicides were applied at different times in conjunction with this emergence flush: preemergence (prodiamine, oxadiazon, indaziflam, and tetflupyrolimet) on September 4, 2024; early postemergence (pronamide, simazine, and metribuzin) on October 14, 2024; mid-postemergence (glyphosate, glufosinate, diquat dibromide, and flumioxazin) on February 24, 2025; and late postemergence (foramsulfuron and thiencarbazone + foramsulfuron + halosulfuron) on March 19, 2025. With the exception of oxadiazon, all herbicides were applied with a CO2-pressurized sprayer at 374 L ha−1 via flat-fan nozzle tips (XR8002; TeeJet Technologies, Glendale Heights, IL). Oxadiazon was applied by hand via a sterile sample collection bag (Whirl-Pak. Beaver Dam, WI). In 2025, environmental benchmarks associated with annual bluegrass emergence were reached during the window of October 9 through 15. Concomitantly, herbicides were applied at preemergence and early postemergence timings on September 10 and October 22, 2025, respectively. Herbicides at mid-postemergence and late postemergence timings were applied on February 11 and March 4, 2026, respectively. All herbicide treatments were arranged and applied in an identical manner in a separate, non-fraise–mowed, experiment in an adjacent section of this fairway for comparison.
Annual bluegrass control was visually assessed using a 0% (i.e., no control) to 100% (i.e., complete kill) scale relative to nontreated check plots that were included in each replication. On each date that annual bluegrass control was visually assessed, plant count data were collected by tabulating the number of annual bluegrass plants within a 0.09-m2 section in the center of each nontreated check plot.
To prevent extensive disruption to golfers, fraise-mowed sections could not be divided into replicates; therefore, data collected on fraise-mowed and non-fraise–mowed sections were treated as separate experiments, each repeated over year. Annual bluegrass control and count data collected each year were subjected to a combined ANOVA using R Statistical Software (v.4.5.1; R Core Team 2021) using expected mean squares explained by McIntosh (Reference McIntosh1983) to determine whether year could be combined. Means were separated when appropriate using the LSD.test function found within the agricolae package (de Mendiburu and Yaseen Reference de Mendiburu and Yaseen2020).
Results and Discussion
Residual Herbicides
Significant year-by-treatment interactions were detected when evaluating the efficacy of residual herbicides for annual bluegrass control in non-fraise–mowed hybrid bermudagrass (Table 1). At 12 wk after initial treatment (WAIT), indaziflam, oxadiazon, tetflupyrolimet, and metribuzin provided 81% to 93% control of annual bluegrass in 2024 and 83% to 98% in 2025. By 24 WAIT in the non-fraise–mowed experiment, oxadiazon provided 76% control. The maximum rates of indaziflam and tetflupyrolimet listed used in our experiments resulted in only 33% to 53% control 24 WAIT, whereas applications of prodiamine, pronamide, simazine, and metribuzin resulted in ≤23% control. These responses were not unexpected given herbicide resistance within the annual bluegrass population at this location (Brosnan et al. Reference Brosnan, Vargas, Breeden, Smith, Mahey and Patterson2024). The response to tetflupyrolimet in the current study aligns with previous reports of it controlling herbicide-resistant annual bluegrass for only 11 wk (Pritchard et al. Reference Pritchard, Breeden, Bowling, Gannon, Hutto and Brosnan2025). In 2025, all residual herbicides provided 83% to 98% control of annual bluegrass at 12 WAIT (Table 1). Note that annual bluegrass cover in the non-fraise–mowed site was significantly lower in 2025 than 2024, which may have affected herbicide efficacy (Table 2). Non-fraise–mowed hybrid bermudagrass check plots contained 474 annual bluegrass plants per square meter when assessed at 28 WAIT in 2024, compared with only 186 plants m−2 in 2025. This difference in annual bluegrass cover could be associated with variability in annual bluegrass seed germination, particularly given reduced precipitation (601 mm) at the site in 2025 compared with 747 mm in 2024. Another factor explaining reduced annual bluegrass cover may be higher foot traffic associated with participation in golf surpassing all-time record levels for the previous 3 yr in a row (NGF 2026). By 24 WAIT in 2025, oxadiazon, indaziflam, prodiamine, and tetflupyrolimet provided 46% to 83% control of annual bluegrass, whereas metribuzin, pronamide, and simazine treatments resulted in ≤36% control.
Efficacy of residual herbicides with various modes of action on herbicide-resistant annual bluegrass control in non-fraise-mowed hybrid bermudagrass in 2024 and 2025.a
Table 1. Long description
The table presents data on the efficacy of different herbicides for annual bluegrass control in non-fraisemowed hybrid bermudagrass for the years 2024 and 2025. It includes the timing of application, herbicide names, application rates, and control percentages at 12 and 24 weeks after initial treatment (WAIT). The table has 8 rows and 6 columns. Column headers are Timing, Herbicide, Rate, 2024 12 WAIT, 2024 24 WAIT, 2025 12 WAIT, and 2025 24 WAIT. Row labels include the timing of application (PRE, EPOST), herbicide names (Indaziflam, Oxadiazon, Prodiamine, Tetflupyrolimet, Metribuzin, Pronamide, Simazine), and their respective rates in grams per hectare. Notable trends include high control percentages at 12 WAIT for most herbicides in both years, with varying efficacy at 24 WAIT. For instance, oxadiazon maintained high control percentages throughout, while other herbicides like indaziflam and tetflupyrolimet showed reduced efficacy at 24 WAIT.
a Abbreviations: HR, herbicide-resistant; LSD, least significant difference; EPOST, early postemergence (herbicides applied October 14, 2024, and October 22, 2025); PRE, preemergence (herbicides applied September 4, 2024, and September 10, 2025); WAIT, weeks after initial treatment.
Herbicide-resistant annual bluegrass cover in non-fraise and fraise-mowed hybrid bermudagrass in 2024 and 2025.a,b
Table 2. Long description
The table presents data on herbicide-resistant annual bluegrass cover in non-fraise and fraise-mowed hybrid bermudagrass for the years 2024 and 2025. It has four rows and five columns. The columns are labeled as ‘Trial site’, ‘HR annual bluegrass cover’, ‘2024’, ‘2025’, and ‘Plants m^-2’. The ‘HR annual bluegrass cover’ column is further divided into ‘24 WAIT’ and ‘28 WAIT’ for both years. The ‘Trial site’ row is divided into ‘Non-fraise-mowed’ and ‘Fraise-mowed’. Row 1: Non-fraise-mowed, 2024, 24 WAIT, 334; 28 WAIT, 474. Row 2: Fraise-mowed, 2024, 24 WAIT, 62; 28 WAIT, 57. Row 3: Non-fraise-mowed, 2025, 24 WAIT, 159; 28 WAIT, 186. Row 4: Fraise-mowed, 2025, 24 WAIT, 40; 28 WAIT, 40.
a Abbreviations: HR, herbicide-resistant; WAIT, weeks after initial treatment.
b Separate sections of hybrid bermudagrass (8 × 30 m) were fraise-mowed on June 18, 2024, and June 23, 2025, using a KORO FTM 1.6 (Imants, Campey Turf Care, Macclesfield, Cheshire, U.K.) fraise mower equipped with a universe rotor containing 10-mm-thick blades set to remove the uppermost 1.3 cm of the turfgrass surface. Adjacent sections (8 × 30 m) were left non-fraise–mowed for comparison.
No year-by-treatment interactions were detected when evaluating the efficacy of residual herbicides for annual bluegrass control in hybrid bermudagrass fraise-mowed during summer; therefore, data from 2024 and 2025 were combined (Table 3). When applied to hybrid bermudagrass that had been fraise-mowed, all residual herbicides effectively (≥99%) controlled annual bluegrass except pronamide, which provided 86% control at 12 WAIT. By 24 WAIT, prodiamine, oxadiazon, and indaziflam resulted in 83% to 88% control, whereas tetflupyrolimet, metribuzin, simazine, and pronamide provided 61% to 78% control of this herbicide-resistant population. Although it was not possible to carry out direct statistical comparisons given that herbicides were evaluated in separate fraise-mowed and non-fraise–mowed experiments, it should be noted that failure to provide acceptable control in the non-fraise–mowed experiment (due to evolved herbicide resistance) was not observed when herbicides were applied in the fraise-mowed experiment at this location.
Efficacy of residual herbicides with various modes of action on herbicide-resistant annual bluegrass control in fraise–mowed hybrid bermudagrass.a,b
Table 3. Long description
A table comparing the efficacy of various residual herbicides on herbicide-resistant annual bluegrass control in fraise-mowed hybrid bermudagrass. The table has 8 rows and 4 columns. The columns are labeled ‘Timing’, ‘Herbicide’, ‘Rate’, and ‘HR annual bluegrass control’. The ‘HR annual bluegrass control’ column is further divided into ‘12 WAIT’ and ‘24 WAIT’ with values in percent. The ‘Rate’ column has values in grams per hectare. The herbicides listed include Indaziflam, Oxadiazon, Prodiamine, Tetflupyrolimet, Metribuzin, Pronamide, and Simazine. The table shows the efficacy of these herbicides at different timings and rates.
a Abbreviations: EPOST, early postemergence (herbicides applied October 14, 2024, and October 22, 2025); HR, herbicide-resistant; LSD, least significant difference; PRE, preemergence (herbicides applied September 4, 2024, and September 10, 2025).
b Data were pooled from experiments initiated after fraise mowing on June 18, 2024, and June 23, 2025.
Postemergence Herbicides
No year-by-treatment interactions were detected when evaluating the efficacy of postemergence herbicides for annual bluegrass control in either fraise-mowed or non-fraise–mowed hybrid bermudagrass experiments; therefore, data from each experiment conducted in 2024 and 2025 were combined (Table 4). Both glyphosate and glufosinate provided effective control (91% to 99%) of this herbicide-resistant population of annual bluegrass when applied to fraise-mowed or non-fraise–mowed hybrid bermudagrass during winter dormancy. By 6 WAIT, annual bluegrass control with foramsulfuron and thiencarbazone + foramsulfuron + halosulfuron was only 53% when it was applied to non-fraise–mowed hybrid bermudagrass, a response that is likely related to herbicide resistance within this population (Brosnan et al. Reference Brosnan, Vargas, Breeden, Smith, Mahey and Patterson2024). When applied to hybrid bermudagrass that had been fraise-mowed in summer, annual bluegrass control with these herbicides was 60% to 70% by 6 WAIT. By 6 WAIT, applications of diquat dibromide and flumioxazin resulted in ≤10% annual bluegrass control when applied to non-fraise–mowed hybrid bermudagrass. When applied to hybrid bermudagrass that had been fraise-mowed in summer, diquat dibromide and flumioxazin applications resulted in 18% to 34% control on the same date.
Efficacy of postemergence herbicides with various modes of action on herbicide-resistant annual bluegrass control in separate non-fraise–mowed and fraise-mowed hybrid bermudagrass experiments.a–c
Table 4. Long description
The table presents data on the efficacy of various herbicides for annual bluegrass control in fraise-mowed and non-fraise-mowed hybrid bermudagrass. It includes columns for herbicide type, application rate, and control percentages at different wait times. The table has 6 rows and 6 columns. Column headers are Timing, Herbicide, Rate, HR annual bluegrass control Non-fraise-mowed 3 WAIT, HR annual bluegrass control Non-fraise-mowed 6 WAIT, HR annual bluegrass control Fraise-mowed 3 WAIT, HR annual bluegrass control Fraise-mowed 6 WAIT. Row labels include MPOST and LPOST timings with specific herbicides listed under each. The table shows the rate in grams per hectare and the control percentages for each herbicide at 3 and 6 weeks after treatment (WAIT) for both non-fraise-mowed and fraise-mowed conditions. Notable trends include high control percentages for glyphosate and glufosinate across all conditions, while diquat dibromide and flumioxazin show lower control percentages, particularly in non-fraise-mowed conditions.
a Abbreviations: LPOST, late postemergence (herbicides were applied to hybrid bermudagrass emerging from dormancy on March 19, 2025, and March 4, 2026); LSD, least significant difference; MPOST, mid-postemergence (herbicides were applied to dormant hybrid bermudagrass on February 24, 2025, and February 11, 2026); WAIT, weeks after initial treatment.
b Separate sections of hybrid bermudagrass (8 × 30 m) were fraise-mowed on June 18, 2024, and June 23, 2025, using a KORO FTM 1.6 fraise mower (Imants, Campey Turf Care, Macclesfield, Cheshire, U.K.) equipped with a universe rotor containing 10-mm-thick blades set to remove the uppermost 1.3 cm of the turfgrass surface. Adjacent sections (8 × 30 m) were left non-fraise–mowed for comparison.
c In each separate experiment, data were pooled over years.
Practical Implications
Although the experimental design of this study would not facilitate direct statistical comparisons of herbicide efficacy on hybrid bermudagrass with or without summer fraise mowing, there was a marked trend toward increased efficacy when several herbicides were applied following fraise mowing, particularly those that target the soil seedbank via residual activity. Enhanced herbicide efficacy following fraise mowing has been previously reported with applications of glyphosate and fluazifop-p-butyl to control bermudagrass (Cynodon spp.) during turfgrass renovation (Richardson et al. Reference Richardson, Brosnan, McCalla and Breeden2021). Increased efficacy in the current study may be related to an overall reduction in the annual bluegrass seedbank from fraise mowing because the practice reduced plant counts by 75% to 88% from 24 to 28 WAIT each year (Table 2). Significant reductions in annual bluegrass have been previously reported in hybrid bermudagrass following summer fraise mowing (Brosnan and Breeden Reference Brosnan and Breeden2024; Carroll et al. Reference Carroll, Brosnan, Unruh, Stephens, McKeithen and Boeri2021). In addition to reducing seedbank abundance, the process of fraise mowing may have also removed annual bluegrass germplasm that contained genetic mechanisms that confer resistance. Considering that sole reliance on herbicides, even mixtures that deliver varying modes of action, will not prevent resistance evolution (Evans et al. Reference Evans, Tranel, Hager, Schutte, Wu, Chatham and Davis2016), a mechanical control measure such as fraise mowing could aid in sustained annual bluegrass management. While barriers to adopting the process of fraise mowing on golf courses still exist (Carroll et al. Reference Carroll, Brosnan, Unruh, Stephens, McKeithen and Boeri2021), restored use of residual herbicides lost due to resistance may provide a benefit that makes costs associated with fraise mowing debris removal and facility closure worthwhile.
Acknowledgments
We thank the Tennessee Golf Trail for supporting this research; specifically, Jeff Kuhns, superintendent at the Montgomery Bell State Park Golf Course. Additionally, we thank Matt Powell with Grounds Care Unlimited for providing fraise-mowing services that were the focus of this research.
Funding
Financial support in the first year of this study was provided by the United States Golf Association Davis Research Program.
Competing Interests
The authors declare they have no competing interests.
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