Introduction
Białowieża Forest, situated on the Polish-Belarusian border, covers an area of approximately 1500km2, of which 600km2 lie within Poland. Over 100km2 of the Polish section constitute the Białowieża National Park (Jędrzejewska et al. Reference Jędrzejewska1997: 402–404) (Figure 1). Despite intermittent human activity (Latałowa et al. Reference Latałowa2016: 40–42), the forest is recognised as one of the last few remnants of primeval temperate woodlands in the Great European Plain. In recognition of its outstanding natural and cultural value, the forest was inscribed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 2014 (Jaroszewicz et al. Reference Jaroszewicz2019).
The location of Białowieża Forest: A) on a map of Poland; B) on a map of Podlachia Voivodeship; C) Białowieża Forest and Białowieża National Park (purple) (figure by M. Szubski).
Systematic research in the region began during the First World War (Götze Reference Götze and Stechow1929) and resumed after the Second World War, though it remained fragmentary until 2016, when the State Forests initiated a heritage inventory project and, a year later, the ‘Cultural and natural heritage of the Białowieża Forest’ programme introduced comprehensive, interdisciplinary studies in this logistically challenging environment (Olczak & Krasnodębski Reference Olczak and Krasnodębski2022). The application of airborne laser scanning (ALS) enabled the detection of numerous potential archaeological sites. Subsequent verification through field surveys, coring, sampling and limited excavations resulted in the documentation of 1842 anthropogenic surface features (Urbańczyk & Wawrzeniuk Reference Urbańczyk and Wawrzeniuk2021).
Methods
The research employed a multistage method emphasising non-invasive techniques. Identification of anthropogenic structures is based on historical records, archival materials, cartographic analysis and ALS data analysis (Figure 2A). ALS data are primarily derived from the national ISOK (Informatic System for Country Protection) programme, which provides coverage for the entire territory of Poland (standard ISOK I: ≥4 points/m2, laser beam spot diameter ≤0.5m, four returns, 20% cross-coverage). For areas of high site density, an additional targeted ALS survey was commissioned (≥14 points/m2, beam diameter 0.13m, four returns, 40% cross-coverage).
Procedure for identifying potential anthropogenic features: A) aerial remote sensing and archival research; B) field verification with GPS devices; C) analysis in a GIS environment; D) digitally documented test excavations; E) integration of archaeological and environmental data in a spatial database; F) catalogue for each individual feature discovered (figure by M. Szubski).
Field verification was conducted during periods of minimal vegetation cover (Figure 2B). Each identified feature was digitally documented through profiling and metric analysis. Selected representative examples underwent limited excavation (Figure 2C & D) to explore chronology, function and stratigraphy. Archaeological interventions were limited to coring and test-trenching (Figure 3), except at Sacharewo, where large-scale excavation aimed to identify the function and cultural attribution of the settlement (Niedziółka et al. Reference Niedziółka2024).
Verification methods undertaken for the different types of features identified in dense forest. The use of non-invasive methods to determine whether these are anthropogenic or natural features is crucial (figure by K. Niedziółka).
Pre-excavation geophysical prospection (using magnetometry and ground-penetrating radar) was undertaken, though its efficacy was significantly constrained by dense vegetation, windthrows and waterlogged terrain. Samples were collected for palaeoenvironmental research and radiocarbon dating. All data were systematically integrated into a dedicated geographic information systems (GIS) database (Figure 2E).
Results
Initial ALS analyses identified 1919 potential anthropogenic features, of which 1842 (96%) were confirmed through subsequent field verification (Figure 4). The majority (1615) of features comprise earthen mounds of varying morphology and chronology: 577 probable barrows dating from the Middle Stone Ages to the Middle Ages, 246 charcoal piles from the past 500–600 years and 54 tar kilns (Szubska et al. Reference Szubska2023) (Figure 4). Additional features include 51 pit-house vestiges, 30 First and Second World War trenches and 17 military cemeteries, most of which were lost from local memory.
Visualised digital terrain model of different types of sites identified and ground-level photographs from the locations (figure by M. Szubski).
Extensive ancient field systems are visible as low linear embankments, barely perceptible in situ but clearly defined in ALS visualisations. Thirteen large field complexes and several smaller clusters have been identified, representing substantial evidence of historical agricultural practices spanning from Roman Period to the medieval period (see Figure 5). These findings are exceptional in both scale and preservation within a forested landscape (Krupski et al. Reference Krupski2022).
Distribution of identified anthropogenic features in the GIS database (figure by M. Szubski).
A distinctive complex of features near the Orłówka River comprises a small enclosure, an adjacent field system and a cluster of associated mounds. Although invasive research is precluded by its location within the National Park, surface collections yielded early medieval pottery and flint artefacts indicative of an even earlier (likely Mesolithic) presence.
In the Wilczy Jar Forestry (see Figure 1), a looted barrow associated with the Wielbark culture was discovered and excavated. It contained burnt animal bones, an antler comb and a vitrified pottery vessel, suggesting a cremation burial. Radiocarbon dating (third–fifth centuries AD) links this site with Wielbark barrow traditions from the Upper Narew and Middle Bug regions (Krasnodębski et al. Reference Krasnodębski2024).
Further research within the ‘Szczekotowo’ Reserve (Figure 6) and the Sacharewo Forest Unit revealed close spatial associations between field complexes, barrows and settlements from the beginning of the third to the beginning of the thirteenth century. Geoarchaeological and archaeobiological analyses—including sedimentology, soil chemistry, micromorphology, plant macroremains, malacology and phytolith research—enabled reconstruction of localised anthropogenic impacts (Niedziółka et al. Reference Niedziółka2024).
Digital terrain model of the ‘Szczekotowo’ Reserve showing its unique, complicated landscape of barrows, field systems and charcoal kilns from various periods (figure by M. Szubski).
Eighteen sites underwent small-scale excavations encompassing four major feature types: barrows, field embankments, modern tar kilns and twentieth-century trenches. Additionally, five settlement sites lacking visible topography were test-excavated, all attributed to the Roman period.
Although the number of artefacts recovered was sparse—comprising primarily flint and pottery fragments—the results demonstrate a long chronological span of human activity, extending from the Mesolithic (c. 10 000 BP) to modern times. The evidence indicates recurrent yet episodic and spatially restricted anthropogenic influence rather than continuous occupation.
Conclusions
The project ultimately revealed an unexpectedly rich and diverse archaeological landscape within Białowieża Forest. The resulting catalogue—comprising 3800 pages of data (Urbańczyk & Wawrzeniuk Reference Urbańczyk and Wawrzeniuk2021)—will be a fundamental resource for future archaeological research, conservation and heritage management strategies (Figure 2F). The validated, multidisciplinary method developed here provides a replicable model for researching archaeological heritage in other densely forested environments.
Funding statement
The project was financed by the National Science Centre, Poland: UMO-2016/20/W/HS3/00593).
Author contributions: CRediT categories
Joanna Wawrzeniuk: Conceptualization-Equal, Methodology-Equal, Project administration-Equal, Supervison-Equal, Writing-review & editing-Equal. Michał Jakubczak: Methodology-Equal. Piotr Kittel: Methodology-Equal. Dariusz Krasnodębski: Methodology-Equal. Bogusława Kruczkowska: Methodology-Equal. Kamil Niedziółka: Methodology-Equal. Magdalena Szubska: Methodology-Equal. Michał Szubski: Methodology & Graphics-Equal. Przemysław Urbańczyk: Conceptualization-Equal, Methodology-Equal, Project administration-Equal, Supervision-Equal, Writing - review & editing-Equal.
