This Special Issue presents overviews of the life and work of the 19th Century climate change pioneer James Croll. The predominant emphases within the volume are based upon published material, but exceptions to this are those contributions which are informed strongly by archival sources (Brassington Reference Brassington2021a, Reference Brassingtonb; Edwards Reference Edwards2021; Edwards & Robinson Reference Edwards and Robinson2021). This paper collates source materials for investigating the life of Croll (cf. Betterton Reference Betterton, Betterton, Craig, Mendum, Neller and Tanner2019a, Reference Betterton, Betterton, Craig, Mendum, Neller and Tannerb, Reference Betterton, Betterton, Craig, Mendum, Neller and Tannerc; Edwards Reference Edwards2021; Edwards & Robinson Reference Edwards and Robinson2021). This paper collates source materials for investigating the life of Croll (cf. Betterton Reference Betterton, Betterton, Craig, Mendum, Neller and Tanner2019a, Reference Betterton, Betterton, Craig, Mendum, Neller and Tannerc) and also seeks to examine, mainly in summary form, the diverse materials which may illuminate the biography of a historical figure. The discursive element of this work is structured as follows:
• The Autobiographical sketch and Memoir
• Publications by James Croll
• Genealogy – vital, monumental and related records (wills, probate, etc.)
• Manuscript sources – archival, including related digital resources
• Manuscript sources for sale and in private ownership
• Published sources – including catalogues, thesis and digital resources
This arrangement might be considered unconventional in that it does not proceed from primary manuscript sources to secondary published ones. This is a consequence of the variety of elements under consideration and, hence, this is not a straightforwardly bibliometric study. All references are contained within section 9, which is sub-divided in terms of manuscript sources (sections 9.1 and 9.2), followed by a list of Croll's publications (section 9.3). The latter precede the list of relevant published materials that are not authored by Croll (section 9.4).
1. The Autobiographical sketch and Memoir
An essential starting point for those interested in a considered study of Croll is the Autobiographical sketch of James Croll LL.D., F.R.S., etc. with memoir of his life and work (Irons Reference Irons1896). The substantial (553-page) compilation of commentary and correspondence, together with Croll's own Autobiographical sketch, was a labour of adulation by his solicitor friend, James Campbell Irons (1840–1910), the son of David Irons, the Perth grocer who had inducted Croll into the ways of selling tea (one of Croll's early careers).
Of great importance is the brief 33-page Autobiographical sketch and the ‘Prefatory note’, which Croll had dictated to his wife prior to his death (Croll Reference Croll1887; Edwards Reference Edwards2021). The Sketch contains information on his family history, upbringing, schooling, his many jobs and homes (Edwards & Robinson Reference Edwards and Robinson2021), the joys and frustrations of his scientific life and the central importance to him of religion.
The Memoir has extensive portions of biographical material either copied or paraphrased from the Autobiographical sketch by Irons. In addition, there is verbatim reproduction of a large number of letters which passed between Croll and his correspondents, both scientific (e.g., Charles Darwin, Joseph Hooker, John Tyndall) and personal (and often religious – e.g., James Morison, Osmond Fisher) – for which some of the originals are to be found in the British Library (sections 4 and 9.1.3). Irons also included letters of reminiscence and obituaries by William Thomson (later Lord Kelvin) and John Horne, Croll's friend and colleague at the Geological Survey in Edinburgh (Thomson Reference Thomson1891; Horne Reference Horne1892).
The choice of publisher for the volume – Edward Stanford of Charing Cross, London – was probably linked to the fact that Croll had published two books with them, including one completed only weeks before his death (Croll Reference Croll1885b, Reference Croll1890b).
2. Publications by James Croll
Between 1854 and 1890, Croll published around 100 items. His publishing career was bookended by two religiously orientated philosophical volumes (Anon. [=Croll] 1857, 1890) and included a further three books (Croll Reference Croll1875a, Reference Croll1885b, Reference Croll1889c), of which the first is the monumental Climate and time in their geological relations: a theory of secular changes of the Earth's climate. The American edition of Climate and time (with the same pagination of the main text as the British edition) was reprinted without change in 1885 by Adam and Charles Black of Edinburgh. This last company, in 1885, also produced Discussion of climate and cosmology (Croll Reference Croll1885b), although the identical version published by Edwards Stanford of London is seen more commonly.
An incomplete list of Croll's publications first appeared in the obituary produced by John Horne (Reference Horne1892) and it was reproduced by Irons in his Memoir without specific acknowledgement. In neither case were volume or page numbers included, nor, often, were full titles and other publication details. Where possible, this information has been included in section 9.3. At the end of Horne's inventory, he said that ‘The list of Dr Croll's scientific publications from 1861 to 1883 was prepared at the latter date for a special purpose. I am indebted to the kindly aid of Mr Bennie of the Geological Survey of Scotland for completing the list.’ That ‘special purpose’ was presumably the memorial submitted to the ‘Lords of the Committee of the Council on Education, Science and Art Department’ in an effort to secure an enhanced pension (Edwards & Robinson Reference Edwards and Robinson2021). James Bennie (1821–1901) had previously worked in a paper factory and had received kindly encouragement from Croll for his fossil collecting and other geological investigations (Anon. 1901).
Croll published most frequently in the Philosophical Magazine (42 times), followed by Nature (21) and the Geological Magazine (14). The full title of the first of these was The London, Edinburgh, and Dublin, Philosophical Magazine and Journal of Science, of which Series 4 appeared in 1851–1875 and Series 5 from 1876 to 1900. Each series consisted of 50 volumes. It has always been published by Taylor & Francis or predecessor companies. Its appeal ‘was predicated on its independence: free of the bureaucracy that attended the learned society, as well as the strictures on having to present papers before publication, Philosophical Magazine was able to present itself as a nimble operator and rapid route to publication’ (Clarke & Mussell Reference Clarke and Mussell2015, p. 323). The current iteration of the journal, Series 8, is titled The London, Edinburgh, and Dublin, Philosophical Magazine and Journal of Science: A Journal of Theoretical Experimental and Applied Physics.
As was common during the 19th Century, a number of Croll's papers were published simultaneously in other journals. For instance, Croll (Reference Croll1880c), in Nature, also appeared in the Geological Magazine and the American Journal of Science and Arts. Instances of simultaneous publication are not listed as separate items in section 9.3. In some cases, the papers were split between different issues of the same journal (e.g., Croll (Reference Croll1865c) on glacial submergence appeared in the 2nd and 9th December issues of The Reader).
3. Genealogy
Croll's keen sense of family and place have been explored elsewhere (Edwards & Robinson Reference Edwards and Robinson2021).
The importance of his family connections was demonstrated on the first page of the Autobiographical sketch (Croll Reference Croll1887), where he spoke of siblings, parents and predecessors and his consultation of the baptismal register for Cargill parish, which had enabled him to trace his (paternal) ancestors to the middle of the 17th century. Using a combination of dispersed statements within Irons's text and genealogical data on births, marriages and deaths (e.g., accessible via FamilySearch (2021) and Ancestry (2021), including census data for the periods 1841–1901), it has been possible to construct a family tree, which extends back to approximately the first third of the 18th Century (Fig. 1). It is a little unusual for the records of this era to record so few children or to show marriages from beyond relatively local areas. Records of children who died as babies or even in infancy were not always recorded; while Croll's brief residence in Elgin as a tea merchant, and where he met his wife, was perhaps influenced by the fact that his mother's family came from that town.
Extended family chart for James Croll and his wife Isabella Macdonald. James Croll's position within the chart is accentuated by shading. Note that Isabella Macdonald appears twice (middle row, left) – as James's wife and as a member of the Macdonald family – as does Janet Ellis, his mother (second row down, to left and in the centre). Abbreviations: b = baptismal or birth date; m = marriage date; d = death or burial date. As is always the case with such records, it is important to note that it has not been possible to verify all links.
The cross-matching of historical sources can, of course, be informative. An example is provided by Croll's Civil Service files associated with recruitment to the Geological Survey of Scotland. There he named John Findlay of Elgin and William Logan of Glasgow as referees (CSC 11_73–004), though without further comment other than their addresses. John Findlay was, in fact, his wife's brother-in-law (Fig. 1), and William Logan, ‘much esteemed in Glasgow for the interest he took in the temperance and other social reforms’ (Croll Reference Croll1887, p. 27), was a director of the Safety Life Assurance Company and had offered Croll a job in 1853 as agent's assistant after the failure of his temperance hotel in Blairgowrie.
The sources for changes in names of the Croll family (Croyl → Croil → Croll), aspects of family life evident in censuses, wills and probate (‘confimation’) records are explored in Edwards & Robinson (Reference Edwards and Robinson2021) and listed in section 9.1. Additional information comes from Croll's headstone in Cargill churchyard (Fig. 2). Here, Croll's father is named ‘David Croll (Croyl)’, whereas his surname had been ‘Croil’ according to his declaration of 1854 (CSC 11/73, pp. 021–23) used by James in connection with his recruitment to the Geological Survey of Scotland. Irons (Reference Irons1896, p. 488) talked of Croll's ‘tombstone which he had been at some pains to get erected himself’, yet the probable monumental mason wrote to Croll from Cargill on 25 April 1876 (Irons Reference Irons1896, p. 308):
SIR,–I got the inscription that you sent me to put on the tombstone, and I send it to you as you wished to know it for the putting on of your brother's name…. If you would send me the inscription you want put on the stone as soon as convenient, I will try and get it done as soon as I possibly can, and in so doing you will oblige,–Yours truly, JOHN FENWICK.
The face (top) and back (bottom) of the Croll family headstone in Cargill churchyard with transcriptions (photos: K. J. Edwards).
The contents of this letter would seem to be more correct – that is, an inscription for James's brother David who died 28 February 1876. The nature of the lettering on the stone (larger size for the upper half and smaller and less spaced text in the basal portion as more names were added) would suggest that the stone was augmented rather than newly erected at James's instigation. Furthermore, the back of the stone (Fig. 2) bears the date 1787 and the initials of three individuals – Alexander Croyl, his wife Isabel Bisset, along with their son, David Croll (Croyl). The stone can surely be taken as inscribed, being by Alexander Croyl and Isabel Bisset in memory of their children who died in infancy. Alexander and Isabel would have had the stone erected as a family grave in 1787. The omission of the initials of the siblings of their son David (i.e., Mary, Christian and James) was likely because of their deaths prior to 1787, though all are mentioned on the face of the stone.
4. Archival manuscript sources
There are six main archival depositories relating to James Croll with regard to the numbers of documents held – the British Library, the British Geological Survey, Haslemere Educational Museum, Edinburgh University, the University of Cambridge and The National Archives. Lesser quantities of material are in institutional and private hands. Publicly accessible material is listed in section 9.1.
The most diverse range of documents is that in the British Library collections. A number of these are clearly associated with Irons's Memoir and described as ‘Letters, chiefly from men of science to James Croll…with letters to his biographer’. These represent communications from an astonishing list of notables, including Charles Darwin, Joseph Hooker, John Tyndall, Charles Lyell, Alfred Russell Wallace, Francis Galton, Charles Wyville Thomson and Alexander Agassiz. The ‘bundle’ of documents was consigned under the name of Michelmore and sold as Lot 189 by Sotheby's in 1924 (Francesca Charlton-Jones, pers. comm. May 2016). The preceding lot is a collection of eight autograph letters to Charles Darwin from Croll, dated 1868–1875, ‘on geological topics’ (Sotheby, Wilkinson & Hodge 1924). In addition, the British Library houses the papers associated with the Royal Literary Fund for writers in financial difficulties (Edwards & Robinson Reference Edwards and Robinson2021; RLF 2021).
The British Geological Survey archive consists of a mixture of copies of correspondence on matters such as Croll's appointment, medical situation and retirement, as well as a series of letters from Croll to his work colleague Benjamin Neeve Peach (1842–1926). The 28 letters to Peach span the period 1871–1884 and vary from routine work affairs to personal observations, which shed some light on Croll's persona (Edwards & Robinson Reference Edwards and Robinson2021).
The material on Croll within the Sir Archibald Geikie Archive of Haslemere Educational Museum covers correspondence Geikie (1835–1924) when both Director of the Geological Survey in Scotland (1867–1882) and of Great Britain (1882–1901). Copies of more than 60 letters concerning Croll (most written to him) survive for the period between 1869 and 1885. They mainly consist of outgoing official correspondence, but also demonstrate that Geikie confided in Croll when it came to some colleagues, and that he also worked assiduously in attempting to alleviate Croll's pension and financial problems.
The Edinburgh University Library, Special Collections, has records spread across two collections. The largest group, 22 letters, sent from 1865 to 1866 to Sir Charles Lyell (1797–1875) by James Croll, are contained within Lyell's Papers (Coll-203). These are mainly of a scientific nature and cover such topics as the temperature of space, the velocity of light, the sun's heat on earth at different times of the year, orbital variations, oceanography and ice accumulation. There are also letters from Croll to Archibald Geikie (Coll-74) concerning the former's financial situation and a letter from Charles Darwin to Geikie saying that he had signed the nomination certificate of Croll for Fellowship of the Royal Society ‘with real pleasure’ (Coll-74; Edwards Reference Edwards2021).
It is possible to access 16 letters between Charles Darwin and James Croll via the Darwin Correspondence Project (University of Cambridge 2021) housed at the University of Cambridge. Some of these (as copies or originals) are to be found in archives listed in section 9.1 or reproduced in Irons (Reference Irons1896). In addition, the Darwin Correspondence Project also enables online searches that mention Croll in letters and publications. The transcript letters between Darwin and Croll, and dated 1868–1881, are concerned with topics such as time, denudation, alternating glaciations in the Northern and Southern Hemispheres and glacier motion. There are also 13 letters sent by Croll to Charles Darwin's astronomer son, George Howard Darwin (1845–1912), within the Darwin Archive of the University.
The National Archives holds documents submitted to the Civil Service Commission in association with Croll's recruitment to the Geological Survey of Scotland in 1867, with later inserts. This provides useful information on his previous employments, family issues (especially the surname change) and his examination failure. There are 28 pages of data, including some duplicate information. Most, if not all, of the material (especially the forms and a letter) is not in the hand of Croll. The aspiring geological administrator sometimes used others with neater handwriting to write on his behalf.
5. Manuscript sources for sale or in private ownership
A number of documents relating directly to Croll have been sold via auction houses and booksellers. These institutions are reluctant to pass on information concerning purchasers and it is difficult to determine where such material now resides. Nevertheless, it is of interest to know what is available at the time of writing, or was previously available, and some of these sales are listed in section 9.2.
This writer has also been able to obtain a small number of documents and the opportunity is taken to summarise these. These include two presentation copies of Climate and time (Croll Reference Croll1875a). The first is the actual copy sent to Charles Wyville Thomson of the Challenger expedition. It is inscribed ‘To Professor Wyville Thomson LL.D., FRS – from the Author’ (Fig. 3) and was acknowledged by Thomson from Ascension Island on 2 April 1876 (British Library, Add MS 41077, ff. 86, 87; transcribed in Irons Reference Irons1896, pp. 308–09). The book subsequently passed into the library of Thomson's expedition colleague and editorial successor, Sir John Murray, and bears Murray's Challenger bookplate. The second volume contains a simple inscription – ‘With the author's kind regards’ – and its owner was a resident of Alford, Aberdeenshire, with family farming connections in Angus.
James Croll's inscription to Charles Wyville Thomson in a copy of Climate and time (in the writer's possession). The book was acknowledged in a letter sent to Croll by Thomson from HMS Challenger, Ascension Island, on 2 April 1876.
The writer also has a collection of five offprints sent to Joseph Henry (1797–1878), Director of the Smithsonian Institute. These date from 1870 to 1879, and one of them (Croll Reference Croll1875c) is inscribed ‘To Professor Henry with the author's compliments’. The offprints were accompanied by an advertising leaflet for Climate and time with the words ‘D. Appleton of New York’, in Croll's hand, written beneath the printed details of the British publishers (Daldy, Isbister & Co., 56, Ludgate Hill, London).
Collections of papers from bound volumes, reported as being owned by Croll, were available for sale in 2004 from Maggs Brothers, London, and 2017–2021 from Jeff Weber Rare Books of California, USA, and Montreux, Switzerland. Advertised as being ‘From the collections of James Croll’, they seem to have originated from John Turton Antiquarian Books of Crook, Co. Durham, who bought them around the year 1990 from the Hodgson's Rooms division of Sotheby's (Ben Bainbridge, pers. comm. April 2020). One of the volumes (in the writer's ownership) comprises 25 offprints with ‘Pamphlets – Foreign – Vol. III’ in gold lettering on the spine. The offprints are dated 1879–1880 and cover German, Scandinavian and Swiss geology and geomorphology, and they are listed (in a hand that is not that of Croll) by author and either journal or summary article title, at the start of the volume. Many of the papers are inscribed with a dedication to Croll, including those by Gottlieb Michael Berendt (1836–1920), Albrecht Penck (1858–1945) and Alfred Gabriel Nathorst (1850–1921). Not all papers have been cut, especially those by the Swiss geologist Eugène Renevier (1831–1906), which may indicate that Croll was disinterested or unwilling to read geological papers in French. This volume would appear to be a companion to another consisting of 41 offprints published in 1855–1874 on subjects such as climate, light, radiation, astronomy, climatology, glaciers and oceanography, available from Jeff Weber Rare Books. These include papers by William Thomson (Lord Kelvin; 1824–1907), William Crookes (1832–1919), Samuel Haughton (1821–1897), William Benjamin Carpenter (1813–1885) and George Carey Foster (1835–1919). Inscribed papers include those by Thomson, one of Croll's nominators for Fellowship of the Royal Society, and his lifelong friend Carey Foster.
Two copies of Irons's (Reference Irons1896) Autobiographical sketch of James Croll in the writer's possession are of particular interest. The first carries an inscription to the Dominican preacher and spiritual director, Father Arthur Henry Bertrand Wilberforce (1839–1904), grandson of politician and slavery abolitionist William Wilberforce (1780–1825). The inscription is signed by Irons (Fig. 4) and reads ‘To the Revd Bertrand Wiberforce OP [Ordo Praedicatorum] etc. etc. In memory of pleasant intellectual intercourse at – [?]’. A bookplate for St Thomas's Priory, Hawkesyard, Rugeley in Staffordshire is pasted inside the cover. The second Irons volume contains an inscription to a Mr James G. Lunn of Paisley, with two items pasted into the front pages. The first is a handwritten excerpt from the Proceedings of the Perthshire Society of Natural Science for 1891, recording the death of ‘Dr Croll, whose fame as a man of science is known to all, did honour to the Society by allowing himself to be enrolled as an honorary member.’ The second is a letter from a Douglas Butter of St Martins, Burghmuir, Perth, to the eponymous Mr Lunn and dated 1 December 1946. Butter said:
I expect you will have been at Cargill Churchyard to see the stone. If you know Thomas Macqueen of Souter & Macqueen joiners Perth, who is an elder in St Leonard's in the Fields, you could have a talk with him. He had heard Mr. Baxter talk of the famous man who belonged to Wolfhill.
James Campbell Irons's inscription to Father Arthur Henry Bertrand Wilberforce in a copy of Autobiographical sketch of James Croll (in the writer's possession).
The Rev. George Chalmers Baxter (1843–1908) was the Free Church minister of Cargill. The letter indicates that Croll's gravestone was clearly known locally in 1946, even if its location was subsequently ‘lost’ until it perhaps gained an internet presence in 2015 (Find a Grave 2021).
6. Published sources
There were many contemporary references to Croll's research within influential books. Thus, there is the first volume of the tenth edition of Principles of geology (Lyell Reference Lyell1867); the fifth edition of Origin of species (Darwin Reference Darwin1869); and the first edition of The Great Ice Age by James Geikie (Reference Geikie1874). A later book was more equivocal as to Croll's contributions (Ball Reference Ball1891), and various debates that related to Croll's work are to be found in the letters pages of Nature and elsewhere (e.g., Carpenter Reference Carpenter1874a, Reference Carpenterb; F. R. S. 1874; Newcombe 1876; Somervail Reference Somervail1877; Watt Reference Watt1890; Howorth Reference Howorth1892; Davis Reference Davis1894; Culverwell Reference Culverwell1896; Darwin Reference Darwin1896; Wallace Reference Wallace1896).
Soon after his death, other than obituaries (e.g., A. G. 1890; Anon. 1890; J. G. 1890; Thomson Reference Thomson1891; Horne Reference Horne1892), there were accounts which followed the Autobiographical sketch and Memoir (e.g., Alexander Reference Alexander1900; Dryerre Reference Dryerre1903), or many decades later and up to the present, hybrid biographical and research accounts of Croll in which the information on his life is clearly based upon Irons's volume (Deacon Reference Deacon1971; Imbrie & Imbrie Reference Imbrie and Imbrie1979; Farrow Reference Farrow2001; Gribbin & Gribbin Reference Gribbin and Gribbin2001; Bryson Reference Bryson2004).
There are also publications in the history of science which place Croll centre stage (Hamlin Reference Hamlin1982; Tasch Reference Tasch1986; Kushner Reference Kushner2004; Fleming Reference Fleming2006; Bol'shakov & Kapitsa Reference Bol'shakov and Kapitsa2010; Bol'shakov et al. Reference Bol'shakov, Kapitsa and Rees2012; Finnegan Reference Finnegan2012) or which contextualise him within larger discussions (e.g., Zuidema Reference Zuidema1947; Bailey Reference Bailey1952; Deacon Reference Deacon1971; Burchfield Reference Burchfield1974, Reference Burchfield2009; Fichman Reference Fichman1977; Mills Reference Mills2009; Ferguson Reference Ferguson2017; Dry Reference Dry2019; Gamble Reference Gamble2021). At least three university theses focus upon Croll (Rothschild Reference Rothschild2008; Brassington Reference Brassington2017, Reference Brassington2021a, b).
Croll plays a greater or lesser part in mainstream scientific literature (e.g., Fairbridge Reference Fairbridge1961; Seibold & Berger Reference Seibold and Berger1982; Muller & Macdonald Reference Muller and MacDonald1997; Hilgen Reference Hilgen2010; Sugden Reference Sugden2014; Kang et al. Reference Kang, Seager, Frierson and Liu2015), though this is often as a compound mention with Milutin Milankovitch or in a subsidiary role (cf. Imbrie & Imbrie Reference Imbrie and Imbrie1980; Imbrie et al. Reference Imbrie, Hays, Martinson, McIntyre, Mix, Morley, Pisias, Prell, Shackleton, Berger, Imbrie, Hays, Kukla and Saltzman1984; Berger & Andjelić Reference Berger and Andjelić1988; Raymo & Huybers Reference Raymo and Huybers2008; Petrović & Marković Reference Petrović and Marković2010; Romano et al. Reference Romano, Rubidge and Sardella2021).
Finally, papers in popularisation (Pearce Reference Pearce2018; Woolf Reference Woolf2021), a book for school children (Woolf & Gibson Reference Woolf and Gibson2021), blogs (Micklethwait Reference Micklethwait2004; Kneale Reference Kneale2019) and other online sites (Thompson Reference Thompson2015; Robinson Reference Robinson2020) can be mentioned.
7. Concluding point
Popular awareness of Croll is practically non-existent, while his scientific contributions are scarcely recognised by modern-day specialists other than historically aware climatologists and Quaternary scientists. It should be readily apparent from the sources presented here that the range and quantity of material which can inform the life, and particularly the work, of James Croll is considerable. The exploration of this corpus, along with the perspectives offered in this volume, have the potential to provide the bases for a sound, even innovative appraisal of a remarkable man.
8. Acknowledgements
The Covid-19 pandemic prevented access to a number of archives, as well as making it impossible to explore additional parish records. Nevertheless, electronic communication has enabled assistance to be received from many helpful individuals. It is a pleasure to thank the following for information, permissions and assistance: Andersonian Library, Archives and Special Collections, University of Strathclyde (Anne Cameron); British Geological Survey, Keyworth (Andrew L. Morrison); the British Library (Western Manuscripts); Edinburgh University Library, Special Collections (Daryl Green and Elise Ramsay); the Geological Society of London (Fabienne Michaud); Haslemere Educational Museum, Sir Archibald Geikie Archive (Robert Neller); Imperial College London, Records and Archives; Jeff Weber Rare Books (Jeff Weber); John Turton Antiquarian Books (Ben Bainbridge); Laura Brassington, University of Cambridge; Milton S. Eisenhower Library, Johns Hopkins University (James Stimpert); Rachel Rothschild, New York University; The National Archives, Kew (Paul Johnson); Royal Geographical Society (with IBG) (Jan C. Turner); Royal Scottish Geographical Society (Mike Robinson); Royal Society of London (Virginia Mills); Sotheby's (Francesca Charlton-Jones); Special Collections, University of St Andrews (Rachel Hart); University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign (Adam Doskey); Wellcome Collection (Yoshika Kobayashi). The eagle-eyed observations of the referees were much appreciated.
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