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Arming Slaves in Early Modern Maritime Asia

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  24 November 2023

Stuart M. McManus Open the ORCID record for Stuart M. McManus [Opens in a new window]
Stuart M. McManus*
Affiliation:
The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, China
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Email: smcmanus@cuhk.edu.hk
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Abstract

While there are large literatures on both Islamic slave soldiers and the phenomenon of “arming slaves” in the Atlantic world, military slavery in early modern Asia is still poorly understood. Using a variety of Chinese, Latin, Spanish, and Portuguese sources, this article will argue that enslaved labour was frequently directed towards violence across early modern Asia, colonial or otherwise. At the same time, the phenomenon was far from uniform in the vast expanse of land and sea between East Africa and Japan. Rather, it is better to speak of a series of analogous regimes of bondage that interacted with each other across large distances, with the line between enslaved soldiers, mercenaries, and run-of-the-mill trader-raiders being vanishingly thin at times. Finally, all this existed within the context of military infrastructure in the broadest sense of the word that included fortresses, factories, and even war elephants.

Keywords

military historyconnected historyAsian slaveryimperialismmaritime empires

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Itinerario , Volume 47 , Special Issue 3: Regimes of Bondage: The Encounter between Early Modern European and Asian Slaveries , December 2023 , pp. 323 - 341
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Copyright © The Author(s), 2023. Published by Cambridge University Press on behalf of Research Institute for History, Leiden University

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Footnotes

Article last updated 19 December 2023

References

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12 The only study that even begins to address the question is Mann, Sahibs, sklaven und soldaten. Important context has recently been provided by Stephanie Hassel, “Religious Identity and Imperial Security: Arming Catholic Slaves in Sixteenth- and Seventeenth-Century Portuguese India,” Journal of Early Modern History 26:5 (October 2022), 403–28.

13 P. J. Marshall, “Western Arms in Maritime Asia in the Early Phases of Expansion,” Modern Asian Studies 14:1 (1980), 13–28.

14 Adam Clulow, “Like Lambs in Japan and Devils outside Their Land: Diplomacy, Violence, and Japanese Merchants in Southeast Asia,” Journal of World History 24:2 (June 2013), 335–58, https://doi.org/10.1353/jwh.2013.0065.

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16 Josef Wicki, Documenta Indica, 48 vols. (Rome: Apud “Monumenta Historica Soc. Iesu,” 1948–), 12: 880. “Li habitatori sono alcuni portughesi et altri naturali della terra, che si chiamano caffari: è gente negra et per l'ordinario vanno nudi, et è vicina a terra ferme che si vede; parte sono christiani et parte gentili [ . . . ]. In questa isola le nave si empiano quasi di questi negri perciochè i portughesi comprano questi negri, fanciulli, homini e donne; il loro prezzo è 5, 6,7 scudi, et alle volte per una scatola di cotognata si compra un negro e per doi testoni. Queste nostre 4° nave mi pare che comprassero da 1.200, i quali poi si adotrinano e si fanno christiani, e si servano di loro senze altro salario.”

17 D. F. A. Hervey, “Valentyn's Account of Malacca,” Journal of the Straits Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society 15 (June 1885), 119–38, 137.

18 João Ribeiro, History of Ceilão, with a Summary of de Barros, de Couto, Antonio Bocarro and the Documentos Remettidos, with the Parangi Hatane and Kostantinu Hatane, translated from the original Portuguese and Sinhalese by P. E. Pieris (Sri Lanka: Colombo Apothecaries Co., 1909), 268, lines 414–18, https://hdl.handle.net/2027/hvd.32044021142278.

19 Boxer, A derrota dos Holandeses, 26, 34; Fernão de Queirós, História da vida do venerável Irmão Pedro de Basto [History of the life of the venerable Brother Pedro de Basto] (Lisbon: Na officina de Miguel Deslandes, 1689), 307; Adam Clulow, The Company and the Shogun: The Dutch Encounter with Tokugawa Japan, Columbia Studies in International and Global History (New York: Columbia University Press, 2014), 208–9.

20 Boxer, Fidalgos in the Far East, 81–5. Discussed more recently by Richard J. Garrett, The Defences of Macau: Forts, Ships and Weapons over 450 Years (Hong Kong: Hong Kong University Press, 2010), 11–13.

21 Lúcio de Sousa, The Portuguese Slave Trade in Early Modern Japan: Merchants, Jesuits and Japanese, Chinese, and Korean Slaves, Studies in Global Slavery 7 (Leiden: Brill, 2019), 434–5.

22 Stuart M. McManus, “Servitutem Levem et Modici Temporis Esse Arbitrantes: Jesuit Schedulae and Japanese Limited-Term Servitude in Gomes Vaz's De Mancipiis Indicis,” Bulletin of Portuguese / Japanese Studies 2:4 (2018), 77–99; Robert Lingat, L'esclavage privé dans le vieux droit Siamois (avec une traduction des anciennes lois Siamoises sur l'esclavage) [Private slavery in old Siamese law (with a translation of ancient Siamese laws on slavery)] (Paris: Ed. Domat-Montchrestien, 1931); Panananon Chatchai, “Siamese ‘Slavery’: The Institution and Its Abolition” (PhD diss., University of Michigan, 1982).

23 Even in the early eighteenth century, the city was only defended by a garrison of eighty soldiers: Biblioteca Pública de Évora [Public Library of Evora, Portugal], cod. CXVI, 2–6, no. 10, fols. 450r–451v. On fortresses in Portuguese Asia, see Pedro Luengo, “Forts in Between: The Defense of Manila and Macao during the Iberian Union,” Philippine Studies: Historical and Ethnographic Viewpoints 70:3 (September 2022), 337–64.

24 Manuel A. Ribeiro Rodrigues, 400 anos de organização e uniformes militares em Macau: 澳門的軍事組織和軍服四百年: 400 Years of Organization and Military Uniforms in Macau (Macau: Instituto Cultural, 1999), 17–18; Coates, Convicts and Orphans.

25 Biblioteca Pública de Évora [Public Library of Evora, Portugal], “Livro de plantas de todas as fortalezas” [Blueprint book of all strongholds], cod. CXV, 2−1, fol. 171.

26 Coates, Convicts and Orphans, 27–8; Teotonio R. De Souza, Medieval Goa: A Socio-Economic History (Goa: Goa 1556, 2009), 116.

27 Marcus Rediker, Titas Chakraborty, and Matthias van Rossum, A Global History of Runaways: Workers, Mobility, and Capitalism 1600–1850, California World History Library (Oakland: University of California Press, 2019).

28 中國第一歷史檔案館, 澳門基金會, and 暨南大学古籍研究所 [The First Historical Archives of China, Macao Foundation, and Jinan University Institute of Ancient Books], 明清时期澳門問題檔案文獻滙編 [Compilation of archival documents on Macao issues in the Ming and Qing dynasties] (Beijing: People's Press, 1999), 5: 49.14: “絶有力，一人可負數百觔。臨敵不畏死，入水可經一二日。嘗見將官買以衝鋒，其直頗厚。配以華婦，生子亦黑。久畜能曉人言，而自不能言，爲諸夷所役使，如中國之奴僕也，或曰猛過白番鬼云。”

29 Kenneth M. Swope, The Military Collapse of China's Ming Dynasty, 1618–44, Asian States and Empires (Abingdon, Oxon: Routledge, 2014).

30 Michael Charney, “Crisis and Reformation in a Maritime Kingdom of Southeast Asia: Forces of Instability and Political Disintegration in Western Burma (Arakan), 1603–1701,” Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient 41:2 (January 1998), 185–219, https://doi.org/10.1163/1568520982601287.

31 David Parrott, The Business of War: Military Enterprise and Military Revolution in Early Modern Europe (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2012).

32 Xing Hang, Conflict and Commerce in Maritime East Asia: The Zheng Family and the Shaping of the Modern World, c. 1620–1720 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2016), 60; Hui Peng, 明清时期澳门黑人问题研究 [Research on questions of Macao blacks during Ming, Qing times] (Beijing: China Social Sciences Press, 2017), 98–110.

33 Hang, Conflict and Commerce in Maritime East Asia.

34 Shusheng Jiang, 梅氏日記 : 荷蘭土地測量師看鄭成功 [The diary of Philippus Daniel Meij van Meijensteen: A Dutch land surveyor's look on Zheng Chenggong] (Taipei: Echo of Things Chinese, 2003), 31; Juan de Palafox y Mendoza, Historia de la conquista de la China por el Tartaro [History of the conquest of China by the Tartars] (Paris: acosta de Antonio Bertier, 1670), 192–205, http://ark.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k574970; Letter from Antonio de Santa Maria Caballero OF to Padre Provincial, 9 Aug 1649, Sinica Franciscana, ed. Anastasius van den Wyngaert (Rome: M. Sisani, 1929), 2: 362–3 “Han de acomodar en la ciudad de Hanay [Anhai] que esta una legua de este puerto, en la cual hay algunos negros de Macao, cristianos, soldados del mandarin. Tambien esta en ella la hija del mandarin mayor de este partido, cristiana y casada con un Portugues [Rodríguez, Antonio, son of Manuel Bello] a quien yo conocí en Macau y la visete en su casa. El dicho mandarin [Zheng Zhilong], su padre esta en la corte de Pequin representado por el Rey tararo.” .

35 Freamon, Possessed by the Right Hand, 289.

36 朝鮮王朝實錄/ 宣祖實錄 / 三十一年 (1598) 卷一百 五月 / 26 日(P.25–1) [Veritable records of the Joseon Dynasty, Seonjo, 31st year, scroll no. 100, 25–1 (26 May 1598)]: “一名海鬼。黃瞳漆面，四支手足，一身皆黑。鬚髮卷卷短曲，如黑羊毛，而頂則禿脫，一匹黃絹，盤結如蟠桃狀，而着之頭上。能潛於海下，可伐賊船，且數日能在水底，解食水族。中原人亦罕見也。上曰：‘小邦僻在海外，何嘗見此神兵？今因大人見之，莫非皇恩。尤爲感激。兇賊殲滅，指日可待矣。’”

37 David M. Robinson, “Military Labor in China, c. 1500,” in Fighting for a Living: A Comparative Study of Military Labour 1500–2000, ed. Erik-Jan Zürcher (Amsterdam: Amsterdam University Press, 2013), 43–80.

38 Mark C. Elliott, The Manchu Way: The Eight Banners and Ethnic Identity in Late Imperial China (Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 2001), 81–4; Susan Naquin and Evelyn S. Rawski, Chinese Society in the Eighteenth Century (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1989), 7; Pamela Kyle Crossley, Orphan Warriors: Three Manchu Generations and the End of the Qing World (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1990), 14.

39 J. H. Da Cunha Rivara, Arquivo Portuguez Oriental [Portuguese-Oriental archive], 10 vols. (Nova Goa : Imprensa Nacional, 1876), vol. 10, part 2a, 158; C. R. Boxer, Some Aspects of Portuguese Influence in Japan, 1542–1640 (London: Kegan Paul, Trench, Trübner and Co., 1936), 21.

40 Yin Guangren 印光任 and Zhang Rulin 張汝霖, Aomen jilüe 澳門紀略, 2 juan 卷 in 1 vol. (1751; rpt., Guangzhou: Guangzhou gaodeng jiaoyu chubanshe, 1988), Chap. 1, 18: “一、禁畜養倭奴，凡新舊[夷]商，敢有仍前畜養倭奴，順搭洋船貿易者，許當年歷事之人前報嚴拿，處以軍法，若不舉一倂重治。”

41 C. R. Boxer, The Christian Century in Japan, 1549–1650 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1951), 299.

42 Sousa, The Portuguese Slave Trade in Early Modern Japan, 433; C. R. Boxer, “Antes quebrar que torcer” ou (pundonor Português em Nagasaqui, 3–6 de Janeiro de 1610) [“Before breaking than torturing” or (Portuguese pride in Nagasaki, 3–6 January 1610)] (Macau: Imprensa Nacional, 1950).

43 Adam Clulow, “Unjust, Cruel and Barbarous Proceedings,” Itinerario 31:1 (2007), 15–34, 28.

44 Cunha Rivara, Arquivo Portuguez Oriental, vol. 3, parte 2 (1861), 653–5.

45 Ibid., 763–4: “Nhũ Japão de qualquer calidade e condicão que seja que na dita cidade de Machao resedir ou a ella for ter, nem outro algum escravo de qualquer outra nação forro ou cativo, traga nem possa trazer catana grande nem pequena inda que seja em companhia de seu senhor, sob pena de todo o que com ela for achado contra forma desta minha ley tendo senhor ser cativo para as minhas gales da India para sempre, e sendo livre ser degradado por dez annos para as mesma gallés,” discussed in Sousa, The Portuguese Slave Trade in Early Modern Japan,432.

46 See note 1.

47 Remco Raben, Batavia and Colombo: The Ethnic and Spatial Order of Two Colonial Cities 1600–1800 (PhD diss., University of Leiden, 1996), 142–3.

48 Paulo Jorge de Sousa Pinto, The Portuguese and the Straits of Melaka, 1575–1619: Power, Trade and Diplomacy (Singapore: NUS Press, 2012), 225–6; Luis Coello de Barbuda, Reyes de Portugal y empresas militares de Lusitanos [Kings of Portugal and military companies of Lusitanos] (Lisbon: Pedro Craesbeeck, impressor del Rey, 1624), 321r–v.

49 Chris Baker and Pasuk Phongpaichit, A History of Ayutthaya: Siam in the Early Modern World (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2017), 123; Clulow, “Like Lambs in Japan”; Copia de carta de Pedro de Acuña, gobernador de Filipinas [Copy of letter from Pedro de Acuña, governor of the Philippines], Seville, 1604, Archivo General de Indias [General archive of the Indies], Filipinas, 19, R.3, N.35.

50 Chris Baker, “Ayutthaya Rising: From Land or Sea?,” Journal of Southeast Asian Studies 34:1 (February 2003), 41–62, 48–9, https://doi.org/10.1017/S0022463403000031; Senchii Iwao, “Reopening of the Diplomatic and Commercial Relations between Japan and Siam during the Tokugawa Period,” Acta Asiatica 4 (July 1963), 1–31. The term trader-raider evokes Sven Beckert's “war capitalism”: Sven Beckert, Empire of Cotton: A Global History (New York: Knopf, 2014), xv–xvi.

51 W. H. Moreland, Peter Floris, His Voyage to the East Indies in the Globe, 1611–1615: The Contemporary Translation of His Journal, Bibliography of the Hakluyt Society Second Series, Part I 2/74 (London: Printed for the Hakluyt Society, 1934), 56.

52 Sousa, The Portuguese Slave Trade in Early Modern Japan, 271–2.

53 G. V. Scammel, “The Pillars of Empire: Indigenous Assistance and the Survival of the ‘Estado da India’ c. 1600–1700,” Modern Asian Studies 22:3 (1988), 473–89; Rotem Kowner, From White to Yellow: The Japanese in European Racial Thought, 1300–1735, McGill-Queen's Studies in the History of Ideas 63 (Montreal & Kingston: McGill-Queen's University Press, 2014).

54 João de Barros, Da Ásia. Década Segunda. Parte Segunda (Lisbon: Na regia officina typografica, 1777), 87–8: “No tabalho das quaes obras se aproveitou Affonso d'Alboquerque de huma gente do povo de Malaca chamabada Ambarages, que quer dizer escravos d'El Rey, como em verdade o eram d'El Rey, e elle lhe mandava dar ração de mantimento; e quando não, ells o ganhavam, mantendo a si, e a suas mulheres, e filhos, dos quaes escravos El Rey teria passante de tres mil. E porque Affonso d'Alboquerque em começando as obras soube parte destes escravos, e delles andavam ainda elos matos, outros ficáram nos duções, e outros estavam na cidade sem elle saber quaes eram, mandou lançar pregões, que todo escravo que for a d'El Rey Mahamed, se viesse a elle pera lhe mandar dar seu mantimento, e ficaria no foro da vida, e Liberdade que d'ante tinha; e qualquer pessoa que lhe trouxesse hum destes por andar fugido, ou se elle aprensentasse pera ser assentado por escravo d'El Rey, que elle lhe mandaria dar hum tanto. O qual pregão foi causa que muita gente livre ficou cativa” porque como os homens tinham premio, dos duções, e matos traziam do povo pobre hum livre; e tanto que o apresentava por escravo d'El Rey, era assentado na matricula delles, ficando com nome de escravo elle, sua mulher e filhos. E o peior era, que como hum homem queria mal a outro, denunciando ser escravo com duas testemunhas, não havia mais miser, o qual negocio destes Ambarages foi ao Diante causa de muito mal, como se verá.”

55 Thomas R. Trautmann, Elephants & Kings: An Environmental History (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2015).

56 Ingrid Saroda Mitrasing, The Age of Aceh and the Evolution of Kingship: 1599–1641 (PhD diss., University of Leiden, 2011), 232–56.

57 Remco Raben, “Cities and the Slave Trade in Early-Modern Southeast Asia,” in Linking Destinies: Trade, Towns and Kin in Asian History, ed. Peter Boomgaard, Dick Kooiman, and Henk Schulte Nordholt (Leiden: Brill, 2008), 119–40.

58 Affan Seljuq, “Relations between the Ottoman Empire and the Muslim Kingdoms in the Malay-Indonesian Archipelago,” Der Islam: Zeitschrift für Geschichte und Kultur des Islamischen Orients 57 (January 1980), 301–10; R. Michael Feener, Patrick Daly, and Anthony Reid, Mapping the Acehnese Past, Verhandelingen van Het Koninklijk Instituut Voor Taal-, Land- En Volkenkunde 268 (Leiden: KITLV Press, 2011), 80.

59 Hubert Th. Th. M. Jacobs, ed. and trans., A Treatise on the Moluccas (c. 1544): Probably the Preliminary Version of António Galvão's Lost História Das Molucas, Sources and Studies for the History of the Jesuits, vol. 3 (Rome: Jesuit Historical Institute, 1971), 75.

60 Lisbon, National Library of Portugal, cod. 2577, fols. 23v–24r: “Adscriptitionum quoque servorum naturam sequuntur regii servi, quorum est ingens numerus apud Australes principes, et vocantur Ambarages. Hi enim si legitimi sint patris sortem et statum habent, quidquid sit de matre; si autem sint illegitimi, matrem committantur, non patrem, prout Malacae aliquando, cum casus conscientiae ad clerum interpretaremur, dedicimus, et notavimus ex quibusdam impii Dachenensis regis in insula Taporbana praecipuis vassalis et oratoribus.”

61 Yock Fang Liaw, Undang-Undang Melaka: The Laws of Melaka (The Hague: Nijhoff, 1976), 168–73; Raffles, Thomas, “On the Maláyu Nation, with a Translation of Its Maritime Institutions,” Asiatick Researches 18 (1818), 102–58, 154Google Scholar; Ito Takeshi, “The World of the Adat Aceh: A Historical Study of the Sultanate of Aceh” (PhD diss., Australian National University, 1984), 396–413; Anthony Reid, “‘Closed’ and ‘Open’ Slave Systems in Pre-Colonial Southeast Asia,” in Slavery, Bondage and Dependency in Southeast Asia, ed. Anthony Reid (St. Lucia: University of Queensland Press, 1983), 156–81; Luís Filipe F. R. Thomaz, “A escravatura em Malaca no século XVI” [Slavery in Malacca in the 16th century], Studia 53 (1994): 253–304; Stuart M. McManus, “Partus Sequitur Ventrem in Theory and Practice: Slavery and Reproduction in Early Modern Portuguese Asia,” Gender & History 32:3 (October 2020), 542–61, https://doi.org/10.1111/1468-0424.12499; Anthony Reid, “‘Slavery So Gentle’: A Fluid Spectrum of Southeast Asian Conditions of Bondage,” in What Is a Slave Society?: The Practice of Slavery in Global Perspective, ed. Noel Lenski and Catherine M. Cameron (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2018), 410–28.

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63 Raffles, “On the Maláyu Nation,” 133.

64 Liaw, Undang-Undang Melaka, 74–5.

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