This is the first special issue dedicated to engaging philosophically with Afro-Brazilian religions in an Anglophone journal of philosophy. It is one of the major outcomes of the project ‘Expanding the Philosophy of Religion by Engaging with Afro-Brazilian Traditions’ (2021–2024), generously funded by the John Templeton Foundation and managed by the Brazilian Association for Philosophy of Religion. The issue includes articles by its original members, along with contributions from later supporters. These articles were presented in an earlier form at the project’s capstone conference in September 2023 at the University of Brasília.

The idea for this project arose, in part, from my experience of spending an academic year as a Brazilian scholar immersed in a centre of excellence for the analytic philosophy of religion. Although I had previous contact with the discipline, it was only during 2019–20 that I had the opportunity to gain a bird’s-eye view of the philosophy of religion. While I was deeply impressed by the refinement and depth of the discussions I encountered, I was less struck by their breadth. I found that the discipline’s restricted diet of examples directly impacts the sources, questions, methods, and solutions I encountered. When I attempted to reflect on how recent developments in the philosophy of religion might be applied to Brazil’s autochthonous traditions, I found little to draw on. This realization motivated me to draft a project to explore the issue further. Of course, I could not undertake this task alone.

It was around this time that I learned about the Global Philosophy of Religion Project, which was then in its early stages and opening calls for project and translation grants. The fact that such a project had gained favour with the John Templeton Foundation inspired me to pursue a similar initiative, albeit on a much smaller scale. I am deeply grateful to Yujin Nagasawa for both his inspiration and his unwavering support of our project, as well as for his invitation to stay at the University of Birmingham as a visiting fellow during a crucial phase of its development. At that time, I also became aware of his new editorial endeavour, the Elements in Global Philosophy of Religion series at Cambridge University Press. My own contribution to it was recently published as the inaugural volume in that series (Porcher Reference Porcher2024).

Afro-Brazilian religions were shaped by the forced migration of over four million enslaved Africans between 1500 and the 1860s. These religions blend African traditions, primarily those of the Yoruba (Nagô), Ewe, Fon, and Ashanti peoples from West Africa, as well as the Bantu groups from Central Africa, with Indigenous elements, popular Catholicism, and later, Kardecist Spiritism. This created dynamic religious systems that prioritize practical efficacy, emphasize the fluidity between the spiritual and material worlds, and engage in rituals that are centred around spirit possession (or incorporation), offerings, and sacrifice. Among the most prominent Afro-Brazilian religions are Candomblé and Umbanda, which revolve around the worship of African deities (orixás) as well as ancestors and spirits, with a focus on this-worldly healing, positioning the terreiros (spiritual centres) as important community hubs where spiritual and physical well-being are intimately connected.

Discussing variegated, plural, and malleable traditions inevitably involves some risk of overgeneralization. Nonetheless, some generalization is necessary to speak about them meaningfully. Four key characteristics of these traditions are worth highlighting. First, they are orally transmitted, with no universally accepted textual sources. Second, they are non-institutionalized, lacking a central authority; instead, practitioners organize in independent, autonomous groups. Third, these traditions are ritual-focused, with no central emphasis on formal professions of faith. Finally, their rituals are deeply embodied, incorporating dancing, singing, and drumming as core elements. In these ways, these traditions stand in contrast to the sources that shaped much of the traditional philosophy of religion (Schilbrack Reference Schilbrack2014).

Looking back, the above executive summary of our project that we pitched to the John Templeton Foundation still reflects well the spirit of our collective endeavour, which culminates in this collection.

In ‘Axé as the cornerstone of Candomblé philosophy and its significance for understanding well-being (bem estar)’, Bettina E. Schmidt investigates the emic concept of axé, a vital spiritual force present in all living beings. Schmidt reflects on how Candomblé’s conception of well-being is deeply intertwined with the balance of axé, proposing that this framework provides a unique approach to human flourishing that diverges from Western understandings of health and spirituality. She challenges the reductionist view of Candomblé as merely a practice, presenting it as a sophisticated philosophical system in its own right. Drawing on anthropological insights, Schmidt argues for the integration of non-Western worldviews into philosophical discussions, advocating for an ethnographically informed philosophy of religion (Burley Reference Burley, Loewen and Rostalska2023) that recognizes the intellectual richness of traditions like Candomblé. In doing so, she calls for a broader, more inclusive philosophical approach that counters the dominance of Western-centered perspectives in tackling key philosophical issues.

In ‘“Not so much thought out as danced out”: expanding philosophy of religion in the light of Candomblé’, Mikel Burley examines dance as a medium for religious communication and an embodied form of knowledge. Drawing on Marlene de Oliveira Cunha’s concept of ‘gestural language’ (Oliveira Cunha Reference Oliveira and Marlene1986, Reference Oliveira and Marlene2022) and Yvonne Daniel’s study of Afro-diasporic dance as a vehicle of embodied knowledge (Daniel Reference Daniel2005), Burley builds on R.R. Marett’s assertion that some religions are ‘danced out’ (Marett Reference Marett1914, xxxi) to explore how Candomblé’s rhythmic bodily movements intricately intertwine with cognitive and emotional engagement. Through his analysis, Burley emphasizes the ritual significance of dance, demonstrating how embodied practices mediate religious knowledge. He argues for an expanded epistemology that recognizes the role of bodily experience, challenging the conventional focus of philosophy of religion on intellectual dimensions alone. In doing so, Burley opens up a pathway for incorporating traditions which operate through sensory, embodied, and affective practices, into the broader framework of philosophy of religion, urging scholars to move beyond the assumption that only ‘disembodied’ knowledge is worthy of the name.

In ‘Afro-Brazilian religions and religious diversity: contributions to pluralism’, Marciano Adilio Spica identifies two prevalent issues in existing pluralist theories: homogenization, as seen in John Hick’s (1989/Reference Hick2004) approach, which overlooks the distinctiveness of individual religions, and what he terms isolationism, as exemplified by Victoria Harrison’s (Reference Harrison2008) framework, which treats religions as entirely separate entities. Spica argues that Afro-Brazilian traditions, particularly their syncretic nature, offer a valuable perspective that navigates between these extremes. By embracing syncretism – a blending of diverse religious elements – Afro-Brazilian religions exemplify a dynamic interplay between different faiths, challenging rigid categorizations. This syncretic wisdom, as Spica terms it, provides a nuanced understanding of interreligious dynamics, suggesting that the fluid and integrative practices of Afro-Brazilian religiosity can inform and expand philosophical discussions on religious diversity. Spica’s analysis underscores the importance of considering underrepresented religious traditions in philosophical discourse, advocating for a more inclusive and representative approach to the study of religious pluralism.

In ‘John Hick and Candomblé: The concept of religion and the experience of evil’, Agnaldo Cuoco Portugal critiques John Hick’s (Reference Hick2004) definition of religion, highlighting its limitations in fully capturing the distinctive features of Candomblé, an Afro-Brazilian tradition that reflects elements of both ‘pre-axial’ and ‘post-axial’ religions. To address these limitations, Portugal proposes three refinements: a pragmatic adjustment to better understand individual and group practices, a methodological division into general and specific components, and a content-based amendment to include religion as a response not only to transcendent experiences but also to the experience of evil. By incorporating the concept of evil, Portugal argues for a more comprehensive understanding of religion that reflects the complexities of traditions like Candomblé. This refined definition offers greater explanatory power and fruitfulness, enhancing the study of religious diversity and the philosophy of religion.

In my own contribution to this issue, ‘The mythic narratives of Candomblé Nagô and what they imply about its Supreme Being’, I examine Yoruba-derived creation myths (Prandi Reference Prandi2001) to explore the attributes of Candomblé’s Supreme Being, comparing these myths with theological perspectives from African Traditional Religion. I argue that Candomblé’s Supreme Being, as depicted in creation narratives, is a limited god, which helps explain the absence of a problem of evil within the tradition. (This article grew out of my participation in the final conference of the Global Philosophy of Religion Project at Waseda University, Tokyo, on the theme ‘The Problem of Evil & Suffering’.) A closer look reveals the moral ambivalence of Candomblé’s Supreme Being and other high deities, as well as the world itself. In this way, I underline Candomblé’s distinctive approach to a classical problem, setting it apart from the predominantly theistic framework in most philosophy of religion. Moreover, I argue for the importance of philosophizing through immersion in myths, emphasizing the need to appreciate the complexities and richness of these traditions without imposing external assumptions or biases.

Finally, in ‘The semantics of Afro-Brazilian spirits: Applying Davidson on prior and passing theories’, Steven Engler and Mark Q. Gardiner apply semantic theory to the ethnographic study of Afro-Brazilian religions, particularly Umbanda. They focus on the role of scriptedness in communication, especially within religious rituals, and clarify the importance of social externalities in Davidson’s framework of communicative interpretation. Engler and Gardiner introduce the concept of ‘semantic reduction’ to explain how local social factors – such as ritual, doctrine, and material conditions – shape interpretative frameworks. Drawing on Davidson’s ideas of prior and passing theories (Davidson Reference Davidson and LePore1986), they argue that interpreters rely on initial hypothetical frameworks (prior theories) and adjust them during communication (passing theories) to maintain mutual understanding. Through ethnographic examples, they demonstrate how these theories guide the interpretation of ritual contexts, suggesting that ritual behaviour can be understood through the lens of semantic reduction without requiring a unique interpretative method. The authors emphasize the role of stable semantic frameworks in religious practices and propose a methodological strategy for ethnographers to investigate the limits of these frameworks, contributing to the study of religious and cultural dynamics.

I am confident that we have taken significant first steps towards addressing some of the central philosophical questions raised by Afro-Brazilian religions, but I am also keenly aware that this is (or should be) only the beginning. We need more philosophical efforts at engaging with cultural anthropology and ethnography, with emic concepts, embodied practices, mythic narratives, syncretism, and monolatric polytheism. At the same time, there are countless metaphysical, epistemological, ethical, and aesthetic issues still unexplored in the context of Afro-Brazilian religions. I sincerely hope that this collection will not only inspire further philosophical engagement with Afro-Brazilian traditions but also encourage parallel projects exploring other underrepresented religions.