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Structure of internalizing and externalizing symptoms in early adolescence: A comparison of a bifactor and a two-factor model over time and across reporters

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  10 February 2025

Matthew D. Scalco Open the ORCID record for Matthew D. Scalco [Opens in a new window] ,
Yuliya Kotelnikova Open the ORCID record for Yuliya Kotelnikova [Opens in a new window] ,
Miranda Evans ,
Chris Harshaw ,
Nicole M. Webre ,
Lilliana J. Lengua Open the ORCID record for Lilliana J. Lengua [Opens in a new window]  and
Craig R. Colder
Matthew D. Scalco*
Affiliation:
Psychology, University of New Orleans College of Sciences, New Orleans, LA, USA
Yuliya Kotelnikova
Affiliation:
Psychology, University of New Orleans College of Sciences, New Orleans, LA, USA
Miranda Evans
Affiliation:
Psychology, University of New Orleans College of Sciences, New Orleans, LA, USA
Chris Harshaw
Affiliation:
Psychology, University of New Orleans College of Sciences, New Orleans, LA, USA
Nicole M. Webre
Affiliation:
Psychology, University of New Orleans College of Sciences, New Orleans, LA, USA
Lilliana J. Lengua
Affiliation:
Psychology, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA
Craig R. Colder
Affiliation:
Psychology, University at Buffalo, Buffalo, NY, USA
*
Corresponding author: Matthew D. Scalco; Email: mdscalc1@uno.edu
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Abstract

Psychopathology assessed across the lifespan often can be summarized with a few broad dimensions: internalizing, externalizing, and psychosis/thought disorder. Extensive overlap between internalizing and externalizing symptoms has garnered interest in bifactor models comprised of a general co-occurring factor and specific internalizing and externalizing factors. We focus on internalizing and externalizing symptoms and compare a bifactor model to a correlated two-factor model of psychopathology at three timepoints in a large adolescent community sample (N = 387; 55 % female; 83% Caucasian; M age = 12.1 at wave 1) using self- and parent-reports. Each model was tested within each time-point with 25–28 validators. The bifactor models demonstrated better fit to the data. Child report had stronger invariance across time. Parent report had stronger reliability over time. Cross-informant correlations between the factors at each wave indicated that the bifactor model had slightly poorer convergent validity but stronger discriminant validity than the two-factor model. With notable exceptions, this pattern of results replicated across informants and waves. The overlap between internalizing and externalizing pathology is systematically and, sometimes, non-linearly related to risk factors and maladaptive outcomes. Strengths and weaknesses to modeling psychopathology as two or three factors and clinical and developmental design implications are discussed.

Keywords

Bifactorexternalizinginternalizingstructure of psychopathologyvalidity

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Type
Regular Article
Information
Development and Psychopathology , Volume 37 , Issue 3 , August 2025 , pp. 1230 - 1256
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© The Author(s), 2025. Published by Cambridge University Press

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