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‘Jostling for right of way’: Hawker discourse, legitimation, and politics in post-independence Malay(si)a, 1957–1969

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  27 January 2025

Chin Kar Yern Open the ORCID record for Chin Kar Yern [Opens in a new window]
Chin Kar Yern*
Affiliation:
ASEAN Research Center, Asia School of Business, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
*
Email: karyern.chin@asb.edu.my
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Abstract

This article investigates the developments of hawker discourse and movements across the Malay(si)an peninsula in the first decade of independence. Looking at news coverage and municipal records, it examines the contingent, gendered, and egalitarian qualities of hawking as labour which led to its adoption by people experiencing hardship, and influenced the ways in which municipal authorities and the public discussed hawkers. In effect, hawkers, long significant to the historical and cultural systems of Malayan trade, were recharacterized as vulnerable subjects at the urban margins. The article then explores how local administrations understood and regulated hawkers through categories of location, race, and food, shaping the politics and governance of hawkers in public spaces. To engage with such governance, hawkers formed associations that protested against injustice and established dialogue with municipal and town councils, impelling authorities to consider a more significant inclusion of hawking in street planning. Throughout the period, the potential and limits of hawker inclusion in post-colonial public spaces became subject to significant debate between municipal authorities, political representatives, and hawkers. As local administrations eventually deepened their commitment to support hawkers, they also expanded their regulation, signifying a cautious imperative to legitimate hawkers and influencing the logic of post-independence planned spaces.

Keywords

Food labourpost-colonial discourseurban governanceMalaysiahawker

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Type
Research Article
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Modern Asian Studies , Volume 58 , Issue 6 , November 2024 , pp. 1664 - 1684
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© The Author(s), 2025. Published by Cambridge University Press.

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References

1 ‘Che’ Hasnah menjejak daerah tenang’, Berita Harian, 27 October 1963; ‘New Low-cost Housing’, The Straits Times, 22 July 1963.

2 Pesuruhjaya Kuala Lumpur (PKL), Annual Report, 1962, BK/PKL/1/11, Arkib Negara Malaysia (ANM hereafter).

3 ‘Che’ Hasnah menjejak’.

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7 Harper, The End of Empire, Chapters 3–4.

8 PKL, Annual Report, 1961–1967, BK/PKL/1/11–BK/PKL/1/19, ANM.

9 Historian James Warren examines the significant presence of street hawker stalls (sites to eat and gather) for rickshaw pullers, his main subjects, in Warren, James, Rickshaw Coolie: A People’s History of Singapore, 1880–1940 (Singapore: NUS Press, 2003; 2nd edn), p. Google Scholar. Anthropologist Rosemary Firth looks at the ways in which Kelantanese men and women moved in and out of petty trading work in her study of the household economies and gender divisions of Kelantanese Malays in 1939 and 1940, in Rosemary Firth, Housekeeping among Malay Peasants (London: London School of Economics Monographs on Social Anthropology, no. 7, 1943).

10 Anthony, James M., ‘Urban Development Planning and Development Control: Hawkers in Kuala Lumpur (1940s–1960s)’, Sojourn: Journal of Social Issues in Southeast Asia, vol. 2, no. 1, Feb 1987, pp. 112–124CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Lees, ‘Discipline and Delegation’; Baillargeon, David, ‘Spaces of Occupation: Colonial Enclosure and Confinement in British Malaya’, Journal of Historical Geography, vol. 73, 2021, pp. 24–35CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

11 For a broad overview of the Malay mass media from the 1870s to 1960s, see Lent, John A., ‘Malaysia’s National Language Mass Media: History and Present Status’, South East Asian Studies, vol. 15, no. 4, 1978, pp. 598–612Google Scholar.

12 BK/PKL/1/11–BK/PKL/1/19, ANM.

13 Yee Fong, Leong, ‘The Impact of the Cold War on the Development of Trade Unionism in Malaya (1948–57)’, Journal of Southeast Asian Studies, vol. 23, no. 1, 1992, pp. 60–73Google Scholar.

14 Watson Andaya, Barbara and Andaya, Leonard Y., A History of Malaysia (Basingstoke: Palgrave, 2001; 2nd edn), pp. 257–261;Google Scholar Johnstone, Michael, ‘The Evolution of Squatter Settlements in Peninsular Malaysian Cities’, Journal of Southeast Asian Studies, vol. 12, no. 2, 1982, pp. 364–380.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

15 Tan, Yvonne, ‘Food in the Counterinsurgency of the Malayan Emergency’, in The Provisions of War: Expanding the Boundaries of Food and Conflict, 1840–1990, (ed.) Nordstrom, Justin (Arkansas: University of Arkansas Press, 2021), pp. 127–144, https://doi.org/10.2307/j.ctv1p2grb2.12.Google Scholar See also Nyce, Ray and Gordon, Shirle, Chinese New Villages in Malaya: A Community Study (Kuala Lumpur: Malaysian Sociological Research Institute, 1973)Google Scholar.

16 Harper, The End of Empire, p. 149. For a social history of Chinese New Villages during the Malayan Emergency and British disciplinary policies and strategies, see Teng Phee, Tan, Behind Barbed Wire: Chinese New Villages during the Malayan Emergency, 1948–1960 (Petaling Jaya: Strategic Information and Research Development Centre [SIRD], 2020).Google Scholar

17 Drabble, An Economic History of Malaysia, p. 172. For an investigation on the politics and affiliations among different Indian ethnic, cultural, and topolect groups, see Stenson, Michael, Class, Race and Colonialism in Peninsular Malaysia (Petaling Jaya: SIRD, 2019).Google Scholar

18 Johnstone, Michael, ‘The Evolution of Squatter Settlements in Peninsular Malaysian Cities’, Journal of Southeast Asian Studies, vol. 12, no. 2, 1982, pp. 364–380.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

19 Unemployment statistics in the early 1960s did not account for the ‘passively unemployed’, which included people who found it difficult to pursue work due to low nutrition levels, location, and institutional and other barriers. Drabble, An Economic History of Malaysia, p. 172.

20 Hawker licence documents in 1957, Kuala Langat Town Board (KLTB) 8/57, ANM; Records of a mobile licensed hawker with address 167, Jalan Besar Taiping, 5/11/63, ANM.

21 Licence application letter by Kurpaya s/o Munian, 4 December 1957, KLTB 8/57, no. 157, ANM.

22 ‘Penjaja chachat yang buka gerai kechil risau Jabatan Kebajikan ta’ tunaikan janji…’, Berita Harian, 24 November 1968.

23 BK/PKL/1/11–BK/PKL/1/19, ANM.

24 See Thompson, E. P., ‘Time, Work-discipline, and Industrial Capitalism’, Past & Present, no. 38, 1967, pp. 56–97CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Harper, The End of Empire, pp. 225–240; Warren, Rickshaw Coolie, p. 220; ‘Penjaja muda merintehkan derita isteri bila di-cheraikan’, Berita Harian, 20 April 1968.

25 T. G. McGee and Y. M. Yeung conducted a comparative developmental study of hawkers and informal economies in Southeast Asian cities. See T. G. McGee and Y. M. Yeung, Hawkers in Southeast Asian Cities: Planning for the Bazaar Economy (Ottawa: International Development Research Centre, 1977).

26 ‘Penjaja muda merintehkan derita isteri bila di-cheraikan’, Berita Harian, 20 April 1968.

27 An example of a quote is: ‘Kids, look at the baby. Adoh! But let them be. They’re only seeking a morsel of rice for their family.’ Translated from ‘Penjaja2 di-pasar’, Berita Harian, 4 February 1959.

28 ‘Cherpen “Terkuai” chuba mendedahkan tentang kechurangan kaum wanita’, Berita Harian, 12 June 1966; ‘Isi cherpen sa-baik-nya jangan-lah berchabang2’, Berita Harian, 24 July 1966.

29 ‘Do’a dan harapan’, Berita Harian, 20 October 1963.

30 ‘Berkenalan dengan Enche’ Bahrom’, Berita Harian, 10 March 1960.

31 Another line is: ‘He doesn’t go to a restaurant because his earnings can’t afford it. It’s cheap to eat at a stall, not even one ringgit he’s already full.’ Translated from ‘Do’a dan harapan’, Berita Harian, 20 October 1963.

32 Usman Awang, ‘Penjual Air-batu’, in Gelombang (Kuala Lumpur: Oxford University Press, 1961), pp. 7–8.

33 Ibid.

34 Awang, ‘Penjual Pisang di Kaki-lima’, in Gelombang, pp. 22–23.

35 ‘Kelantan Market’, Straits Times Annual, 1 January 1957.

36 Taken from ‘Rajin, tekun dan chekap’, Berita Harian, 17 April 1959.

37 Firth, Housekeeping among Malay Peasants, Chapters 1–3; see also Reid, Anthony, ‘Female Roles in Pre-colonial Southeast Asia’, Modern Asian Studies, vol. 22, no. 3, 1988, pp. 629–645.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

38 ‘Temasha menarek dan meriah…’, Berita Harian, 19 May 1964.

39 ‘Penjual sayor2 merayu’, Berita Harian, 22 January 1959; ‘Pasar yang kurang tempat berjualan’, Berita Harian, 18 April 1969.

40 ‘Pasar minggu UMNO berjaya’, Berita Harian, 19 October 1957; ‘Enam buah gerai yang di-khaskan untuk orang2 Melayu’, Berita Harian, 13 December 1958.

41 Manderson, ‘The Development and Direction’, p. 106.

42 ‘Isteri berniaga bantu suami’, Berita Harian, 20 July 1969.

43 ‘Wanita Melayu di-Pasar P.J.’, Berita Harian, 23 May 1965.

44 ‘Kemiskinan tidak harus melemahkan semangat’, Berita Harian, 24 May 1961.

45 Letter by U. C. Abu Bakar, Town Board Port Dickson (TBPD) 1522/56, no. 12, ANM.

46 Application letter by Mr. Tee Tow, KLTB 8/57, no. 121, ANM.

47 ‘Che’ Hasnah menjejak’, Berita Harian.

48 ‘Temerloh di-buka bagi orang Melayu’, Berita Harian, 8 July 1957; ‘Perkampongan baharu di-Ayer Hitam’, Berita Harian, 8 July 1962; A. Mues Jabal, ‘Pembangunan Kampong Baharu paling ranchak’, Berita Harian, 22 September 1968; ‘200 gerai akan di-bena segera untok Kpg Baru dan Kpg Kramat’, Berita Harian, 5 July 1969.

49 ‘Patut menjadi chabaran kpd murid Melayu’, Berita Harian, 6 February 1957.

50 PKL, Annual Report, 1966, part I, BK/PKL 1/17, ANM.

51 Pushcart licence and hawker licence under Kuala Terengganu Town Council, Na Hock Tong, 21F, Pulau Kambing, Kuala Terengganu, 9 June 1959, TCKT, 274/55 SUB-JACKET (23), ANM.

52 Records for a hawker who lives at No.16 Jalan Lim Tee Hooi, Taiping, 5/11/87 A (Records at Jalan Lim Tee Hooi hereafter), ANM.

53 Chinese hawkers in Temerloh, Pahang, had protested placing licence plates on their arms as they would represent the deaths of their parents. See ‘Penjaja2 ta’ mahu berlesen’, Berita Harian, 13 February 1959.

54 ‘Lesen2 untok penaja2 di-luluskan’, Berita Harian, 22 August 1966.

55 Manderson, Lenore, ‘Health Services and the Legitimation of the Colonial State: British Malaya 1786–1941’, International Journal of Health Services, vol. 17, no. 1, 1987, pp. 91–112CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed. From 1948–1956, nutrition diseases (which at the time included dysentery and diarrhoea) accounted for three times as many deaths as infectious and water-borne diseases. Taken from Heng Leng, Chee, ‘Health Status and the Development of Health Services in a Colonial State: The Case of British Malaya’, International Journal of Health Services, vol. 12, no. 3, 1982, pp. 397–417.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

56 Licence application for a bread hawker for the first quarter of 1957, Tan Kai King, No. 22A, Jalan Hiliran, 1957, TCKT 706 SUB-JACKET (3), ANM.

57 Abu Bakar Haji Ya’Akub, ‘Penjaja pasar minggu Kuantan makin kurang’, Berita Harian, 25 February 1967.

58 BK/PKL/1/11–BK/PKL/1/19, ANM.

59 ‘Hawker Stalls’, The Straits Times, 9 January 1965; Anthony, ‘Urban Development Planning’, pp. 116–117.

60 ‘Soal usir penjaja2 JB’, Berita Harian, 4 January 1966.

61 Cutout of minutes for the cabinet meeting on 20 March 1969 regarding the establishment of a hawker control force in Kuala Lumpur, 9/917, ANM.

62 ‘Pekan minggu maseh di-pulau oleh penjaja’, Berita Harian, 30 August 1965; ‘Pekan sari K. Pilah di-pulau penjaja?’, Berita Harian, 3 September 1968.

63 ‘Penjual sayor2 merayu’, Berita Harian, 22 January 1959.

64 ‘Pasar yang kurang tempat berjualan’, Berita Harian, 18 April 1958.

65 BK/PKL/1/11, ANM.

66 ‘Yi shiyihui kaifang baduan jiedao zhunxu xiaofan shedang yingye wuren xiaofan zhizhao gerang huaren wushige’ 怡市議會開放八段街道准許小販設檔營業巫人小販執照割讓華人五十個 [Ipoh City Council Opened up Eight Streets to Allow Hawkers to Set Up Their Stalls; 50 Licenses Allocated to Malay Hawkers to be Given to Chinese Hawkers], Nanyangshangbao 南洋商报, 27 July 1957.

67 ‘Nasib penjaja Melayu’, Berita Harian, 24 September 1963.

68 ‘Renmin jinbu dang liang zhibu xiang basheng shiyihui kangyi jinzhi fei wuji xiaofan meizhouliu zai wufulu baimai bu gongping’ 人民進步黨兩支部向巴生市議會抗議禁止非巫籍小販每週六在吳福發路擺賣不公平 [Two Branches of the People’s Progressive Party Protested that it was Unfair for the Klang City Council to Ban Non-Malay Vendors from Setting up Shop Every Saturday Night on Jalan Goh Hock Huat], Nanyangshangbao 南洋商报, 25 February 1961.

69 ‘Bantahan penjaja2 Temerloh’, Berita Harian, 12 June 1963.

70 ‘Orang2 asing ka-Pekan Sari berniaga, penjaja2 Melayu resah’, Berita Harian, 12 February 1965.

71 Letters between Seethy s/o Ookkayil Moidu and Kuala Langat Town Board, KLTB 8/57, no. 150–153, ANM.

72 ‘Mahkamah menetap ayer batu makanan’, Berita Harian, 6 August 1957.

73 Records at Jalan Lim Tee Hooi, ANM.

74 Complaints against unlicensed hawkers, KLTB 53/56(2), ANM; Records for a mobile hawker at 167, Jalan Besar Taiping, 5/11/63, ANM.

75 BK/PKL/1/11, ANM; ‘The Elusive Hawker is Jailed’, The Straits Times, 2 November 1957.

76 BK/PKL/1/11, ANM.

77 BK/PKL/1/11–BK/PKL/1/19, ANM; General complaints of hawkers and street stalls, Port Dickson Licensing Board, 867, ANM; ‘Basheng san xiaofan zu jiaotong beibu’ 巴生三小販阻交通被捕 [Three Klang Hawkers Arrested for Obstructing Traffic], Nanyangshangbao 南洋商报, 1 October 1961.

78 ‘Jianbanuzhang fengyunbianse jingfang xialing chaidang xiaofan kusheng zhentian’ 劍拔弩張·風雲變色警方下令拆檔小販哭聲震天 [Discoloration of the Wind and Clouds, Police Orders Dismantlement of Files, Hawkers Cry Loudly], Nanyangshangbao 南洋商报, 2 July 1964.

79 ‘Kekhuatiran penjaja2 gunakan ayer kotor’, Berita Harian, 7 March 1959.

80 ‘Penjaja pasar bersengketa sama sendiri’, Berita Harian, 7 October 1962.

81 ‘Bandaran di-minta keluarkan lagi lesen penjaja’, Berita Harian, 20 July 1965.

82 ‘Lesen2 penjaja di-gantong’, Berita Harian, 3 November 1959.

83 Anthony, ‘Urban Development Planning’, p. 122.

84 ‘Squeezing the K. L. Hawkers’, The Straits Times, 5 May 1952.

85 ‘Penjaja2 na’ bantah tindakan polis’, Berita Harian, 21 May 1963.

86 ‘Polis di-adu oleh Dato Bandar’, Berita Harian, 27 April 1961.

87 ‘Liangming baimai jianxiangjiao xiaofan ouda xiaofan xunchayuan tui shi pan zuiming chengli fenbie fakuan erbai ji yibai yuan’ 兩名擺賣煎香蕉小販毆打小販巡察員推事判罪名成立分別罰欵二百及一百元 [Two Hawkers Selling Fried Bananas Assaulted a Hawker Inspector and Judge Convicted and Fined 200 and 100 Yuan Respectively], Nanyangshangbao 南洋商报, 26 February 1964.

88 Hui Kian, Kwee, ‘Chinese Economic Dominance in Southeast Asia: A Longue Duree Perspective’, Comparative Studies in Society and History, vol. 55, no. 1, 2013, pp. 5–34.CrossRefGoogle Scholar See also Warren, Rickshaw Coolie, pp. 3–82; Freedman, Maurice, ‘Immigrants and Associations: Chinese in Nineteenth-century Singapore’, Comparative Studies in Society and History, vol. 3, no. 1, 1960, pp. 25–48.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

89 Leong, ‘The Impact of the Cold War’; Harper, The End of Empire, pp. 131–132.

90 ‘Long shiyihui jue chongxin jiantao xiaofan baimai didian wenti qing jingfang zan fangkuan daibu xingdong jiang shefa qudi paihuai qiaotou jiebian qigai’ 隆市議會决重新檢討小販擺賣地點問題請警方暫放寬逮捕行動将設法取締徘徊橋頭街邊乞丐 [Kuala Lumpur City Council Would Reconsider Hawker Locations and Asked the Police to be Temporarily Lenient Towards Arrests; Would Find a Solution to Remove Beggars Who Hung Around the Bridge], Nanyangshangbao 南洋商报, 1 February 1961.

91 ‘Penjaja2 Melayu na’ tudoh persatuan’, Berita Harian, 16 June 1962.

92 ‘Perkara penjaja di-sampaikan kpd Tun Razak’, Berita Harian, 2 October 1962; ‘Tindakan atas gerai2 tak berlesen akan di-perhebat’, Berita Harian, 3 March 1969; ‘OCPD bela polis yg kena adu’, Berita Harian, 29 April 1961.

93 A. R. Hadzrami, ‘Penjaja2 ini meminta tempat yang tetap untok berniaga’, Berita Harian, 2 September 1965.

94 ‘Xiaofan zuo jinxing qianming kangyi jiazhong fajin’ 小販昨進行簽名抗議加重罰金 [Hawkers Protested by Signing Against Increasing Fines Yesterday], Nanyangshangbao 南洋商报, 13 May 1956. The website of the ‘Malaixiya fanshang tongye zonghui’ 马来西亚贩商同业总会 (Federated Hawkers and Traders Association of Malaysia) explains its background as a federated hawker association spanning Malaysia and Singapore. It appears to have existed since 1951 and was officially registered on 27 March 1953, suggesting broad and profound intercity and interstate solidarities in the period. Further research on hawker organizational archives, where permitted, could shed light on these developments. Found in ‘Malaixiya fanshang tongye zonghui’ 马来西亚贩商同业总会, available at https://gpppkm.gbs2u.com/bd/index3.asp?userid=42797929&idno=1, [accessed 11 December 2024].

95 ‘Penjaja2 berpiket di-depan pejabat bandar’, Berita Harian, 7 January 1961.

96 ‘Penjaja2 na’ bantah tindakan polis’, Berita Harian, 21 May 1963.

97 Files on Petaling Jaya Hawkers’ and Petty Traders’ Association, Registrar of Societies Malaysia (RSM), RSM 708/72, ANM.

98 ‘Jida xiaofan shangye gonghui jiuji shouzai qi huiyou meiming xianfa ershi yuan’ 吉打小販商業公會救濟受災七會友每名先發二十元 [Kedah Hawker Merchants Association Provides Relief to Seven Members Affected by the Disaster with an Initial Payment of M$20 Each], Nanyangshangbao 南洋商报, 17 February 1964.

99 ‘Jilong xiaofan gonghui jinri kai dahui taolun zaoshou saodang wenti’ 吉隆小販公會 今日開大會 討論遭受掃蕩問題 [Kuala Lumpur Hawker Association Held a Meeting Today to Discuss the Issue of Raids], Xingzhouribao 星洲日报, 29 January 1961.

100 Anthony, ‘Urban Development and Planning’, p. 116.

101 ‘Bazhu xiaofan gonghui yu tongye toupiao zhichi guwen chenyushun’ 峇株小販公會籲同業投票支持顧問陳裕順 [Batu Pahat Hawkers Association Called for Their Peers to Vote for Consultant Chen Yushun], Nanyangshangbao 南洋商报, 14 May 1961.

102 ‘Penjaja2 mahu wakil-nya dalam J-kuasa Lesen’, Berita Harian, 7 July 1968. It is unclear whether the Persatuan Penjaja-penjaja Ibu-kota was the same as the Kuala Lumpur Stall Owners, Hawkers and Pedalers Association, which comprised mainly Chinese members. See Anthony, ‘Urban Development Planning’, p. 116.

103 ‘Sokong Tengku’, Berita Harian, 6 August 1969.

104 Anthony, ‘Urban Development Planning’, p. 117.

105 ‘Soal tangkapan penjaja2 jadi perbinchangan hebat Per/SF’, Berita Harian, 4 April 1962.

106 ‘Front Hawker Row: Mrs. Smith Quits’, The Straits Times, 26 September 1957.

107 ‘Penjaja di-halau bukan soal Majlis Bandaran’, Berita Harian, 11 May 1962.

108 ‘Xinshan mahua mingwan zuotan jingfang jubu xiaofan wenti’ 新山馬華明晚座談警方拘捕小販問題 [Malayan Chinese Association Johor Bahru Discusses Hawker Arrests by Police in a Forum Tomorrow Night], Nanyangshangbao 南洋商报, 27 September 1961.

109 ‘Long shiyihui jihua sheli xiaofan zhongxin shichang yi gong jiebian xiaofan jizhong yingye’ 隆市議會計劃設立小販中心市塲以供街邊小販集中營業 [Kuala Lumpur City Council Planned to Establish Hawker Centres to Allow Streetside Hawkers to Centralize their Stalls], Nanyangshangbao 南洋商报, 25 February 1961; ‘Mou jiejue xiaofan jizeng yinqi shichang wenti xiaofan zixun hui jiang chengli quanquan chuli xiaofan shiyi gaihui jiang yanjiu he liding kaipi xinshichang jihua xiaofanju jiang he xiaofan hezuo duifu daitu lesuo’ 謀解决小販激增引起市塲問題小販諮詢會將成立全權處理小販事宜該會將研究和釐訂開闢新市塲計劃小販局將和小販合作對付歹徒勒索 [To Solve the Issue of Insufficient Markets for Increasing Number of Hawkers, a Hawkers Consultation Association Would be Established and Given Full Responsibility for Hawker-related Matters; The Association Would Also Research and Decide on Plans to Start New Marketplaces While Teaming up With Hawkers to Curb Threats by Criminals], Nanyangshangbao 南洋商报, 5 January 1961.

110 ‘Jiashihui xiaofan zixunju tongguo zai bashi chezhan huading zanshixing baimai didian cuqi anlǜ xiaofan zunzhao shiyihui guiding’ 甲市會小販諮詢局通過在巴士車站劃定暫時性擺賣地點促祈安律小販遵照市議會規定 [Melaka Hawkers Association’s Advisory Board Approved of the Plan to Allocate Temporary Stall Locations at the Bus Station and Urged Jalan Kee Ann Hawkers to Follow Rules and Regulations Set Down by the Town Council], Nanyangshangbao 南洋商报, 8 December 1961.

111 ‘Chunjie zai jilongpo’ 春節在吉隆坡 [Chinese New Year in Kuala Lumpur], Xingzhouribao 星洲日报, 1 February 1968.

112 ‘Temerloh di-buka bagi orang Melayu’, Berita Harian, 8 July 1957; A. Mues Jabal, ‘Pembangunan ampong Baharu paling ranchak’, Berita Harian, 22 September 1968; ‘200 gerai akan di-bena segera untok Kpg Baru dan Kpg Kramat’, Berita Harian, 5 July 1969.

113 ‘Pekan sari: hampir lengang’, Berita Harian, 13 March 1961; ‘Gerai baharu untok sateh’, Berita Harian, 21 April 1965; ‘Peruntokan bena gerai2’, Berita Harian, 19 January 1966; ‘Dia gesa penjaja di-arah masok ka-gerai khas’, Berita Harian, 2 June 1969.

114 ‘Pasar khas di-buka untok Melayu’, Berita Harian, 29 June 1965.

115 ‘Kesulitan penjaja2 Melayu di-timbang’, Berita Harian, 30 May 1962.

116 Anthony, ‘Urban Development Planning’, p. 122.

117 Ibid., p. 120.

118 ‘Tanah2 kosong untok penjaja’, Berita Harian, 24 March 1961.

119 PKL, Annual Report, 1967, BK/PKL 1/19, ANM; ‘$1.3 juta utk menyelesaikan soal penjaja dan kereta di-ibu kota’, Berita Harian, 7 January 1966.

120 Their lack of success was attributed to location and rental costs. Anthony, ‘Urban Development Planning’, p. 113.

121 ‘“Pasar malam” untok mengurangkan lagi jumlah penganggor’, Berita Harian, 6 February 1967.

122 ‘Chukai yang tidak bagitu menyakiti’, Berita Harian, 19 January 1968.

123 ‘Bantuan $250 kpd penjaja2’, Berita Harian, 4 June 1969.

124 ‘Majlis Bandaran Johor lanchar kempen berseh’, Berita Harian, 22 August 1969.

125 PKL, Annual Report, 1965, part I, BK/PKL 1/15, ANM; ‘Police Clamp on Road Hawkers’, The Straits Times, 12 April 1965.

126 BK/PKL/1/11–BK/PKL/1/19, ANM; Anthony, ‘Urban Development Planning’, p. 118.

127 ‘Wei zhengjie ji meihua shirong danrongmalin shi hui cu ge shangdian xiaofan zunshou tiaoli yingye’ 爲整潔及美化市容丹絨馬林市會促各商店小販遵守條例營業 [To Clean Up and Beautify the City, Tanjung Malim Will Urge Hawkers in Shops to Comply with the Regulations], Nanyangshangbao 南洋商报, 9 October 1967; ‘Tindakan atas gerai2 tak berlesen akan di-perhebat’, Berita Harian, 3 March 1969.