1. Not the first such attempt, of course, but sufficiently different from the previous ones to make it worth the effort, I hope. My greatest debt is to the work of Ronald Grigor Suny, most recently summarized in his The Revenge of the Past: Nationalism, Revolution, and the Collapse of the Soviet Union (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1993). On the last three decades, see also Kenneth C. Farmer, Ukrainian Nationalism in the Post-Stalin Era (The Hague: Martinus Nijhoff, 1980); Gail Warshofsky Lapidus, “Ethnonationalism and Political Stability: The Soviet Case,” World Politics 36, no. 4 (July 1984): 355–80; Philip G. Roeder, “Soviet Federalism and Ethnic Mobilization,” World Politics 23, no. 2 (January 1991): 196–233; Teresa Rakowska-Harmstone, “The Dialectics of Nationalism in the USSR,” Problems of Communism XXIII (May-June 1974), 1–22; and Victor Zaslavsky, “Nationalism and Democratic Transition in Postcommunist Societies,” Daedalus 121, no. 2 (Spring 1992): 97–121. On the promotion of “national languages” and bilingualism, see the work of Barbara A. Anderson and Brian D. Silver, especially “Equality, Efficiency, and Politics in Soviet Bilingual Education Policy, 1934–1980,” American Political Science Review 78, No. 4 (October 1984): 1019–39; and “Some Factors in the Linguistic and Ethnic Russification of Soviet Nationalities: Is Everyone Becoming Russian?” in Lubomyr Hajda and Mark Beissinger, eds., The Nationalities Factor in Soviet Politics and Society (Boulder: Westview Press, 1990). For a fascinating analysis of state-sponsored nationalism in a non-federal communist state, see Katherine Verdery, National Ideology under Socialism: Identity and Cultural Politics in Ceaus,escu's Romania (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1991).

2. For an excellent overview of recent debates on the ethnic boundaries of political communities, see A. Hollinger, David, “How Wide the Circle of the ‘We'? American Intellectuals and the Problem of Ethnos since World War Two,” American Historical Review 98, no. 2 (April 1993): 317–37.Google Scholar

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8. The “oppressor” was not always “civilized,” as in most marxist analyses of Russia vis-a-vis Poland or Finland.

9. Stalin, Marksizm, 37. The view of a nation (as opposed to a nationality) as a “historical category belonging to a particular epoch, the epoch of rising capitalism” became something of a truism and was reconfirmed without debate at the X Party Congress.

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12. Lenin, “Kriticheskie zametki,” 26.

13. Ibid., 33–34.

14. Ibid., 15, 16; and Lenin, “O prave natsii na samoopredelenie” (1914), in Voprosy, 81 (footnote), and “O natsional'noi gordosti velikorossov” (1914), in Voprosy, 107.

15. Lenin, “Kriticheskie zametki,” 9.

16. Ibid., 9, 28; and “O prave,” 61, 83–84.

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24. Stalin, Marksizm, 163. The same applied to national schools, freedom of religion, freedom of movement and so on.

25. Lenin, “Itogi diskussii o samoopredelenii” (1916), in Voprosy, 129.

26. “Peoples” and “nations” were used interchangeably.

27. Dekrety Sovetskoi vlasti (Moscow: Gospolitizdat, 1957), 1: 39–41, 113–15, 168–70, 195–96, 340–44, 351, 367.

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34. Ibid., 106.

35. Ibid., 53. In the same speech, Lenin argued that even the most “advanced” western countries were hopelessly behind Soviet Russia in terms of social differentiation (which meant that they could—and sometimes should—be regarded as integral nations rather than as temporarily isolated class battlefields). By being Soviet, Russia was more advanced than the advanced west.

36. Ibid., 82.

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42. TsGAOR, f. 1318, op. 1, d. 994, 1. 100.

43. See Zhizn' natsional'nostei (1921) and TsGAOR, f. 1318.

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50. Ibid., 115.

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52. Vareikis and Zelenskii, Natsional'no-gosudarstvennoe razmezhevanie, 57.

53. Ibid., 60. “Nations that have not yet reached the capitalist stage” were not nations according to Stalin's definition.

54. Desiatyi s “ezd, 112, 114.

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59. Ibid., 439–54, 561–65.

60. Quoted in Nenarokov, K edinstvu, 116–17.

61. Dvenadtsatyi s “ezd, 543–45.

62. Ibid., 449.

63. See, for example, “S” ezd po narodnomu obrazovaniiu,” Zhurnal Ministerstva narodnago prosvieshcheniia L (March-April 1914): 195, 242–44.

64. Ob uchrezhdenii Komissii po izucheniiu plemennogo sostava naseleniia Rossii. Izvestiia Kommissii po izucheniiu plemennogo sostava naseleniia Rossii (Petrograd: Rossiiskaia AkademiiaNauk, 1917), 1: 8.

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71. Karskii, Etnograficheskaia karta, 19.

72. Marr, N. La., Plemennoi sostav naseleniia Kavkaza: Trudy Komissii po izucheniiu plemennogo sostava naseleniia Rossii (Petrograd: Rossiiskaia Akademiia nauk, 1920), 9: 24–25 Google Scholar; Marr, N. La., Talyshi: Trudy Komissii po izucheniiu plemennogo sostava naseleniia Rossii (Petrograd: Rossiiskaia Akademiia nauk, 1922), 4: 3–5, 22 Google Scholar.

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91. Simon, Nationalism, 49.

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127. Simon, Nationalism, 46.

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129. See, for example, Akopov, G., “Podgotovka natsional'nykh kadrov,” Revoliutsiia i natsional'nosti 4 (1934): 54–60 Google Scholar; Polianskaia, A., “Natsional'nye kadry Belorussii;, “Revoliutsiia i natsional'nosti 8–9 (1930): 79–88 Google Scholar; Rodnevich, “Korenizatsiia apparata “; Zuev, “Natsmeny “; Popova, E., “Korenizatsiia apparata—na vysshuiu stupen',” Revoliutsiia i natsional'nosti 7 (1932): 50–55 Google Scholar; Iuabov, I., “Natsmeny Uzbekskoi SSR,” Revoliutsiia i natsional'nosti 9 (1932): 74–78 Google Scholar; Sch, P., “Partorganizatsii natsional'nykh raionov,” Revoliutsiia i natsional'nosti 10–11 (1932): 143–48Google Scholar; Karneev, I., “Nekotorye tsifry po podgotovke inzhenerno-tekhnicheskikh kadrov iz korennykh natsional'nostei,” Revoliutsiia i natsional'nosti 3 (1933): 86–92.Google Scholar

130. Khazanskii, Kh., Gazeliridi, I., “Kultmassovaia rabota sredi natsional'nykh men'shinstv na novostroikakh,” Revoliutsiia i natsional'nosti 9 (1931): 86–91 Google Scholar; Kachanov, A., “Kul'turnoe obsluzhivanie rabochikh-natsmen Moskovskoi oblasti,” Revoliutsiia i natsional'nosti 6 (1932): 54–58 Google Scholar; Sabirzianov, I., “Natsmenrabota profsoiuzov Moskvy,” Revoliutsiia i natsional'nosti 9 (1932): 69–74.Google Scholar

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132. In other words, women and children could become default proletarians. See Massell, Gregory, The Surrogate Proletariat: Moslem Women and Revolutionary Strategies in Soviet Central Asia, 1919–1929 (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1974 Google Scholar; Slezkine, Yuri, “From Savages to Citizens: The Cultural Revolution in the Soviet Far North, 1928–1938,” Slavic Review 51, no. 1 (Spring 1992): 52–76.Google Scholar

133. “Vskrytie klassovoi rozni.” See N. Krupskaia, “O zadachakh natsional'nokul'turnogo stroitel'stva v sviazi s obostreniem klassovoi bor'by,” Prosveshchenie natsional'nostei 4–5 (1930): 19.

134. Dimanshtein, S., “Za klassovuiu chetkost’ v prosveshchenii natsional'nostei,” Prnsveshchenie natsional'nostei 1 (1929): 9.Google Scholar

135. Bilibin, N., “U zapadnykh koriakov,” Sovetskii Sever 1–2 (1932): 207.Google Scholar

136. See, for example, Olcott, The Kazakhs, 219; Rakowska-Harmstone, Russia and Nationalism, 100–1.

137. Zaslavskii, D., “Na protsesse ‘vyzvolentsev,'” Prosveshchenie natsional'nostei 6 (1930): 13.Google Scholar

138. Stalin, Sochineniia, 13: 306, 309.

139. For two remarkable exceptions, see Anderson, Barbara A. and Silver, Brian D., “Equality, Efficiency, and Politics in Soviet Bilingual Education Policy, 1934–1980,” American Political Science Review 78, no. 4 (October 1984): 1019–39Google Scholar; and Grigor Suny, Ronald, “The Soviet South: Nationalism and the Outside World,” in Michael Mandelbaum, ed., The Rise of Nations in the Soviet Union (New York: Council of Foreign Relations Press, 1991): 69 Google Scholar.

140. Fitzpatrick, Sheila, Education and Social Mobility in the Soviet Union, 1921–1934 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1979), 235 CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

141. Pervyi vsesoiuznyi s “ezd sovetskikh pisatelei. Stenograficheskii otchet (Moscow: Khudozhestvennaia literatura, 1934), 625.

142. Compare, for example, Stalin, Sochineniia, 8: 149–54; and Dimanshtein, S., “Bol'shevistskii otpor natsionalizmu,” Revoliutsiia i natsional'nosti 4 (1933): 1–13 Google Scholar; S. D., , “Bor'ba s natsionalizmom i uroki Ukrainy,” Revoliutsiia i natsional'nosti 1 (1934): 15–22.Google Scholar

143. Simon, Nationalism, 148–55.

144. After Stalin's speeches at the XVII party Congress and at the Conference of the Leading Collective Farmers of Tajikistan and Turkmenistan (see Stalin, Sochineniia, 13: 361; 14 [1]: 114–115).

145. M. Austin, Paul, “Soviet Karelian: The Language That Failed,” Slavic Review 51, no. 1 (Spring 1992), esp. 22–23.Google Scholar

146. This is, in effect, a crude summary of Vladimir Papernyi's delightful Kul'tura Dva (Ann Arbor: Ardis, 1985).

147. On the “passport system,” see Zaslavsky, Victor, The Neo-Stalinist State (Armonk, N.Y.: M. E. Sharpe, 1982), 92ff Google Scholar.

148. Krasovskii, L., “Chem nado rukovodstvovat'sia pri sostavlenii spiska narodnostei SSSR,” Revoliutsiia i natsional'nosti 4 (1936): 70–71.Google Scholar

149. Dimanshtein, S., “Otvet na vopros, sostavliaiut li soboi evrei v nauchnom smysle natsiiu,” Revoliutsiia i natsional'nosti 10 (1935): 77.Google Scholar

150. Simon, Nationalism, 61.

151. Castillo, Greg, “Gorki Street and the Design of the Stalin Revolution,” in Zeynep Celik, Diane G. Favro and Richard Ingersoll, eds. Streets: Critical Perspectives on Public Space (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1994 Google Scholar.

152. Pervyi vsesoiuznyi s “’ ezd, 43, 49.

153. Ibid., 104.

154. Ibid., 116–17.

155. Ibid., 136, 142, 77.

156. Zaslavsky, “Nationalism and Democratic Transition,” 102.

157. North Ossetian, Iakut, Kazakh, Kirghiz, Kara-Kalpak, Kabarda, Balkar, Turkmen, Tajik, Adyge and Kalmyk (see Furmanova, A., “Podgotovka natsional'nykh kadrov dlia teatra,” Revoliutsiia i natsional'nosti 5 [1936]: 29–30 Google Scholar).

158. Chanyshev, A., “V bor'be za izuchenie i sozdanie natsional'noi kul'tury,” Revoliutsiia i natsional'nosti 9 (1935): 61.Google Scholar

159. Pervyi vsesoiuznyi s “ezd, 43. “Turk” stands for “Azerbaijani. “

160. Stalin, Sochineniia 2 (XV): 204.

161. “Khronika,” Revoliutsiia i natsional'nosti 8 (1936): 80; Rakowska-Harmstone, Russia and Nationalism, 250–59; Allworth, The Modern Uzbeks, 229–30; Bilinsky, Yaroslav, The Second Soviet Republic: The Ukraine after World War II (New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, 1964), 191 Google Scholar.

162. Tillett, Lowell, The Great Friendship: Soviet Historians on the Non-Russian Nationalities (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1969)Google Scholar, passim.

163. Bilinsky, The Second Soviet Republic, 15–16; Conquest, Robert, Soviet Nationalities Policy in Practice (New York: Praeger, 1967, 65–66 Google Scholar.

164. Stalin, Sochineniia 3 (XVI): 100.

165. Ibid., 146.

166. Ibid., 117, 119, 138.

167. See Bilinsky, Yaroslav, “The Soviet Education Laws of 1958–9 and Soviet Nationality Policy,” Soviet Studies 14, no. 2 (October 1962): 138–57.Google Scholar

168. Quoted in T. Kreindler, Isabelle, “Soviet Language Planning since 1953,” in Kirkwood, ed., Language Planning, 49 Google Scholar. See also Bilinsky, , The Second Soviet Republic, 20–35; Farmer, Ukrainian Nationalism, 134–43Google Scholar; Hodnett, Grey, “The Debate over Soviet Federalism,” Soviet Studies 28, no. 4 (April 1967): 458–81CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Simon, Nationalism, 233–64.

169. See, in particular, Lapidus, “Ethnonationalism and Political Stability,” 355–80; Zaslavsky, “Nationalism and Democratic Transition “; Farmer, Ukrainian Nationalism, 61–73.

170. Karklins, Rasma, Ethnic Relations in the USSR: The Perspective from Below (Boston: Unwin Hyman, 1986 Google Scholar.

171. See Roeder, “Soviet Federalism,” 196–233.

172. Rakowska-Harmstone, “The Dialectics,” 10–15. Cf. Hroch, Miroslav, Social Preconditions of National Revival in Europe (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1985 Google Scholar.

173. See, in particular, Farmer, Ukrainian Nationalism, 85–121. Also Allworth, The Modern Uzbeks, 258–59; Simon, Nationalism, 281–82.

174. For a remarkably elegant interpretation of this tension, see Rogers Brubaker, “Nationhood and the National Question in the Soviet Union and Post-Soviet Eurasia: An Institutionalist Account,” forthcoming in Theory and Society.

175. Zaslavsky, Victor, “The Evolution of Separatism in Soviet Society under Gorbachev,” in Gail W. Lapidus and Victor Zaslavsky, with Philip Goldman, eds., From Union to Commonwealth: Nationalism and Separatism in the Soviet Republics (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1992), 83 Google Scholar; Leokadiia Drobizheva, “Perestroika and the Ethnic Consciousness of the Russians,” in ibid., 98–111.