Introduction
Environmental crises; climate change, biodiversity loss and resource degradation pose existential risks to human and ecological systems, disproportionately affecting the Global South where socio-economic vulnerabilities intensify adaptive constraints (Haydock & Srivastava, Reference Haydock and Srivastava2019; Salvatierra & Cabello, Reference Salvatierra and Cabello2022). In Pakistan, environmental degradation intersects with rural–urban inequities, gendered resource access and historical patterns of ecological marginalisation, rendering sustainability challenges both biophysical and socio-cultural (Shah & Khan, Reference Shah and Khan2022). North Sindh exemplifies these dynamics. The region’s agrarian economy is highly susceptible to flooding and water scarcity, while limited educational infrastructure and informal knowledge systems shape environmental understanding outside institutional curricula (Zahra & Khan, Reference Zahra and Khan2023).
Education for sustainable development (ESD) is recognised as a critical mechanism for transformative change under SDG 4.7, which advocates education that fosters environmental stewardship and global citizenship (UNESCO, 2023). ESD scholarship emphasises participatory and action-oriented pedagogies that extend beyond awareness to cultivate environmental agency (Vare & Scott, Reference Vare and Scott2023). However, formal schooling alone is insufficient for sustainability transitions. Families and communities function as essential yet under-theorised sites of environmental learning, particularly in contexts where cultural practices and intergenerational knowledge systems shape ecological values (Chawla, Reference Chawla2020). In rural Pakistan, storytelling, communal resource management and place-based practices sustain environmental knowledge, offering culturally resonant pathways for ESD (Mahmood & Malik, Reference Mahmood and Malik2024). Community-driven initiatives addressing environmental risks further enhance collective efficacy, demonstrating the potential of grassroots action in resource-constrained settings (Rai & Robinson, Reference Rai and Robinson2023). Despite these insights, international ESD literature has given limited attention to how family–community learning environments contribute to sustainability learning in rural and marginalised regions of the Global South.
Central to contemporary ESD theory is action competence, the integration of knowledge, motivation and action skills enabling individuals and collectives to engage critically with environmental challenges (Jensen & Schnack, Reference Jensen and Schnack2020). While extensively studied in formal and predominantly European contexts, limited empirical research examines action competence within informal, relational learning environments of the Global South (Batool & Habiba, Reference Batool and Habiba2021). Pakistani scholarship predominantly addresses curricular and teacher education reforms (Khadim, Reference Khadim, Filho, Salvia and de Vasconcelos2024), overlooking family–community dynamics in sustainability learning. This gap is particularly pronounced in North Sindh, where environmental vulnerability intersects with socio-cultural structures and limited educational opportunities, yet similar dynamics are present across many rural and marginalised contexts globally.
This study addresses these limitations by investigating how families and communities in North Sindh cultivate action competence through ESD practices. By foregrounding relational and culturally grounded learning processes, the research contributes to decolonising ESD theory and extends action competence scholarship to non-Western agrarian contexts. Although situated in North Sindh, the study contributes to international environmental education research by illustrating how culturally embedded family and community networks can support the development of action competence in resource-constrained and socially marginalised settings. The findings therefore offer insights relevant to sustainability education policy and practice in comparable rural contexts globally.
This study investigates how families and communities in North Sindh cultivate action competence through culturally embedded ESD practices. Specifically, it examines: (1) how familial practices strengthen sustainability knowledge and motivation; (2) how community engagement develops action skills amid structural constraints; and (3) what scalable, context-sensitive frameworks can inform policy and practice in resource-scarce settings. By foregrounding relational and culturally grounded learning processes, this research contributes to decolonising ESD theory and advances SDG 4.7 through empirically grounded insights from rural Pakistan.
Conceptual framework
This study is guided by the Action Competence Approach (ACA) as its theoretical and conceptual framework within environmental education. Developed in Scandinavian environmental education research, ACA emphasises learners’ capacity to critically understand environmental problems and participate in democratic processes that enable transformative action (Jensen, Reference Jensen2002). Rather than focusing solely on behaviour change or knowledge transmission, the approach foregrounds agency, critical reflection and participatory engagement in addressing sustainability challenges. In this study, ACA is integrated with relational and socio-ecological perspectives in ESD to examine how environmental learning emerges through everyday social relations and community practices (Tilbury, Reference Tilbury2020; UNESCO, 2023).
The framework (see Figure 1) is situated in North Sindh, Pakistan, a rural Global South context characterised by climate vulnerability, resource scarcity and socio-cultural inequalities. These conditions illustrate how global environmental crises intersect with local livelihood systems, making community-based environmental learning particularly significant. In such contexts, informal learning spaces, especially families and community networks, play a critical role in shaping environmental knowledge, values and practices (Chawla, Reference Chawla2020; McCowan, Reference McCowan2023).
Conceptual framework (Cultivating action competence in North Sindh).
Figure 1. Long description
The diagram presents a conceptual framework for cultivating action competence in North Sindh. It features a tree with roots and branches representing various competencies and contexts. The tree’s roots are labeled ‘Informal & Relational ESD Practices’ and ‘Constrained Opportunities.’ The branches are divided into three main sections: Knowledge & Insight, Action Competence, and Motivation & Commitment. Knowledge & Insight focuses on understanding systems and challenges. Action Competence emphasizes critical and transformative capacity. Motivation & Commitment highlights values and action-oriented hope. The diagram also includes two contextual sections: Family Context and Community Context. Family Context includes intergenerational storytelling and conservation practices. Community Context involves participatory initiatives and local problem-solving. Supportive structures and systems, as well as enabling local action and engagement, are central to the framework.
Within the ACA framework, action competence is conceptualised through three interrelated dimensions: knowledge and insight, motivation and commitment and action skills. Knowledge and insight refer to the systemic understanding of environmental problems and their socio-ecological drivers (Malandrakis, Reference Malandrakis2021; UNESCO, 2023). Motivation and commitment capture the ethical and emotional engagement that encourages individuals to respond to environmental challenges (Hofman & Olsson, Reference Hofman and Olsson2023; Iyengar & Shin, Reference Iyengar and Shin2020). Action skills encompass the participatory capacities required for collaborative problem-solving, dialogue and democratic engagement in sustainability initiatives (Vare & Scott, Reference Vare and Scott2023; Wals, Reference Wals2015).
Families and communities function as key sites of informal environmental and sustainability education (ESE). Intergenerational storytelling, traditional ecological knowledge and conservation-oriented household practices contribute to environmental understanding and motivation (Yli-Panula et al., Reference Yli-Panula, Jeronen, Lemmetty and Pauna2021). Community-based initiatives, including participatory programmes and collective environmental management, strengthen action skills by fostering collaboration and shared responsibility (McCowan, Reference McCowan2023).
To capture these interactions, this study introduces the concept of a relational competence web, which explains how action competence develops through interconnected family and community learning environments. Familial relations cultivate environmental values and motivation, while community engagement expands opportunities for collective participation and environmental action. Social cohesion mediates these processes, whereas structural constraints; such as infrastructure limitations, water scarcity and rural–urban disparities shape the extent to which action competence can be enacted.
The relational competence web is operationalised by linking conceptual dimensions with empirical themes identified in the study, as presented in Table 1.
Relational competence web: mapping conceptual dimensions to qualitative themes
Table 1. Long description
The table presents the operationalization of the relational competence web by linking conceptual dimensions with empirical themes identified in the study. It consists of six rows and five columns. The columns are labeled Dimension, Study context, Qualitative theme, and Illustrative practice. Each row details specific aspects such as Environmental knowledge, Values & ethical orientation, Motivation & agency, Action Skills, Collective participation, and Structural awareness. The table provides examples of family discussions on water scarcity, elders sharing traditional ecological knowledge, storytelling encouraging youth engagement, tree planting practices, community workshops, and dialogues on irrigation access. The table highlights the interconnectedness of these dimensions and themes in understanding relational competence.
Literature review
This literature review establishes a theoretical framework for examining how families and communities in North Sindh, Pakistan, cultivate action competence through education for ESE. The analysis aligns with contemporary debates in environmental education that emphasise transformative pedagogies and learner agency. Environmental education has evolved from awareness-oriented models toward participatory approaches that prioritise critical engagement and societal change (Haydock & Srivastava, Reference Haydock and Srivastava2019). This evolution reflects broader commitments to Sustainable Development Goal 4.7, which advocates ESD, global citizenship and environmental stewardship (Mochizuki & Payne, Reference Mochizuki and Payne2020). In the Global South, ESE must respond to contextual conditions by integrating indigenous knowledge and participatory methodologies while addressing structural constraints such as curriculum fragmentation and limited resources (Durrani et al., Reference Durrani, Malik and Jumani2020; Evans & Ferreira, Reference Evans and Ferreira2020). Such adaptations resonate with the Australian Journal of Environmental Education’s emphasis on culturally situated research and pedagogical innovation.
Evolution of environmental education and education for sustainable development
The trajectory of EE and ESE has undergone a profound shift, evolving from didactic awareness campaigns to dynamic, action-oriented pedagogies that equip individuals to confront pressing global challenges like climate change, biodiversity loss and socio-economic inequities (UNESCO, 2023). Initially rooted in ecological literacy and factual knowledge transfer during the 1970s Tbilisi Conference, EE has matured into a holistic framework that integrates critical pedagogy, social justice and transformative learning (Jensen & Schnack, Reference Jensen and Schnack2020). This evolution is enshrined in the UN’s Sustainable Development Goal 4.7, which mandates education fostering sustainable consumption, human rights and global citizenship (Mochizuki & Payne, Reference Mochizuki and Payne2020). In the Global South, ESE adaptations prioritise contextual relevance, blending indigenous wisdom with participatory methods to counter environmental vulnerabilities exacerbated by colonialism and globalisation (Díaz & Ggarcía, Reference Díaz and García2024; Kopnina, Reference Kopnina2022). For instance, Asia-Pacific programmes emphasise culturally embedded narratives to cultivate resilience, transitioning from rote learning to emancipatory practices that challenge power structures (Fien & Tilbury, Reference Fien and Tilbury2022). Despite these advances, persistent barriers in implementation such as curriculum fragmentation and insufficient teacher capacity hinder widespread adoption, especially in under-resourced nations (Durrani et al., Reference Durrani, Malik and Jumani2020; Khadim, Reference Khadim, Filho, Salvia and de Vasconcelos2024). Recent pedagogical innovations, including project-based curricula, underscore the imperative for ESE to prioritise agency over mere comprehension (Kalla et al., Reference Kalla, Jerowsky, Howes and Borda2022; Vare & Scott, Reference Vare and Scott2023).
Families as sites of environmental learning and value formation
Families constitute foundational environments for sustainability education, functioning as micro-level spaces where environmental values and behaviours are transmitted across generations (Gough, Reference Gough2021). Home-based learning complements formal education by embedding sustainability principles within everyday practices and intergenerational dialogue (Yli-Panula et al., Reference Yli-Panula, Jeronen, Lemmetty and Pauna2021). Empirical evidence indicates that early childhood experiences in nature foster enduring ecological connectedness and environmental empathy (Chawla, Reference Chawla2020). These findings underscore the importance of relational and affective dimensions in environmental education, which align with calls for holistic pedagogies that integrate knowledge, values and action (Uzzell & Räthzel, Reference Uzzell and Räthzel2021). Digital platforms and family-school partnerships further enhance learning opportunities by enabling collaborative knowledge exchange (Hsu & Chen, Reference Hsu and Chen2023). However, cultural norms, gender inequalities and economic constraints in Pakistan limit equitable participation in family-based sustainability initiatives (Shah & Khan, Reference Shah and Khan2022). Research from high-income contexts demonstrates that structured family workshops can strengthen environmental awareness and intergenerational learning, though longitudinal studies are required to assess sustained behavioural outcomes (Quinlan & Bates, Reference Quinlan and Bates2022).
Community engagement and grassroots sustainability
Community engagement translates global environmental objectives into localised action by empowering collective problem-solving and participatory governance (Alam & Parvin, Reference Alam and Parvin2021). Grassroots initiatives democratise environmental decision-making and build social capital through co-designed sustainability projects (Rai & Robinson, Reference Rai and Robinson2023). For instance, community-based natural resource management in Zambia illustrates how co-governance models integrate scientific and local knowledge to enhance ecological stewardship (Milupi et al., Reference Milupi, Mweemba and Mubita2023). Similar initiatives in South Asia demonstrate the scalability of community-driven strategies for climate adaptation and environmental resilience (Rai & Robinson, Reference Rai and Robinson2023). In marginalised urban settings, community education programmes amplify excluded voices and address environmental inequities (McCowan, Reference McCowan2023). Decolonial perspectives further enrich environmental education by challenging dominant paradigms and prioritising indigenous participation (Díaz & García, Reference Díaz and García2024). Despite these advances, resource limitations and policy fragmentation impede the integration of community initiatives with formal education systems, highlighting the need for systemic collaboration (Alam & Parvin, Reference Alam and Parvin2021).
Action competence as a framework for environmental agency
The action competence model provides a theoretical lens for understanding how environmental education fosters agency and problem-solving capacity. This model integrates knowledge, motivation and action skills to enable individuals to engage constructively with complex environmental challenges (Jensen & Schnack, Reference Jensen and Schnack2020). Empirical research demonstrates that action competence strengthens learner agency and promotes sustained pro-environmental behaviours (Hofman & Olsson, Reference Hofman and Olsson2023). Classroom pedagogies that emphasise participatory problem-solving and societal influence are particularly effective in cultivating competence (Sass et al., Reference Sass, De Maeyer, Boeve-de Pauw and Van Petegem2022). Teacher professional development is essential for implementing action-oriented pedagogies; however, studies reveal variability in educator preparedness and pedagogical confidence (Bertling & Schaal, Reference Bertling and Schaal2021). Critics of the ACA caution against over-emphasising individual responsibility, advocating for systemic strategies that address structural inequities and environmental justice (Torsdottir et al., Reference Torsdottir, Olsson and Sinnes2024). These debates align with the Australian Journal of Environmental Education’s commitment to critical inquiry and pedagogical reflexivity.
Relevance to North Sindh and opportunities for contextual research
Applying these theoretical insights to North Sindh reveals significant rural–urban disparities in environmental education awareness and resource access (Batool & Habiba, Reference Batool and Habiba2021). Families in Pakistani contexts serve as vital sites of sustainability learning, yet cultural and economic barriers constrain equitable participation (Shah & Khan, Reference Shah and Khan2022). Community-driven initiatives in flood-prone rural areas illustrate the potential of localised strategies for competence-building and environmental resilience (Zahra & Khan, Reference Zahra and Khan2023). Higher education institutions in Pakistan exhibit uneven engagement with sustainability education, creating gaps between formal and community-based learning (Leal Filho et al. Reference Leal Filho, Raath, Lazzarini, Vargas, de Souza, Anholon, Quelhas, Haddad, Klavins and Orlovic2021). Recent scholarship advocates decolonised pedagogies that align global sustainability frameworks with local realities (Khadim, Reference Khadim, Filho, Salvia and de Vasconcelos2024). However, empirical research on action competence in rural South Asia remains limited, highlighting opportunities for context-specific studies that contribute to international environmental education discourse (Zahoor & Qureshi, Reference Zahoor and Qureshi2025). Such research aligns with the Australian Journal of Environmental Education’s emphasis on cross-cultural perspectives and evidence-based pedagogical innovation.
Theoretical framework: Action competence theory
Action competence theory provides a key framework in ESE for understanding how learners develop the capacity to engage with environmental challenges in informed and meaningful ways. Originating within environmental education research, the concept emphasises that education should move beyond knowledge acquisition toward enabling learners to participate actively in addressing environmental issues (Husamah et al., Reference Husamah, Suwono, Nur and Dharmawan2022).
Action competence involves the integration of critical environmental knowledge, motivation and practical action skills that support individuals and communities in responding to sustainability challenges (Jensen & Schnack, Reference Jensen and Schnack2020). This perspective highlights the importance of participatory and action-oriented pedagogies within ESE (Vare & Scott, Reference Vare and Scott2023).
Within ESE, action competence also emphasises the role of socially embedded learning processes. Families and communities are increasingly recognised as important contexts where environmental values, behaviours and knowledge are developed through everyday practices and cultural interactions (Gough, Reference Gough2021). In many Global South contexts, environmental understanding is closely linked to cultural traditions, agrarian livelihoods and local knowledge systems (Smedby & Laven, Reference Smedby and Laven2024). Examining family and community engagement therefore provides valuable insight into how environmental awareness and action skills develop beyond formal schooling.
By exploring these dynamics in North Sindh, this study applies action competence theory to investigate how culturally grounded educational practices shape environmental learning and participation. In doing so, the research contributes to broader discussions on community-based ESE and the role of local knowledge systems in strengthening sustainability education (Zahra & Khan, Reference Zahra and Khan2023).
Methodology
This study employed a mixed-methods convergent parallel design to examine how family and community interactions cultivate action competence through ESE in North Sindh, Pakistan (Creswell & Creswell, Reference Creswell and Creswell2023). Quantitative surveys assessed the prevalence and distribution of ESE-related competencies, while qualitative interviews and participatory engagements explored socio-cultural processes, barriers and enabling conditions shaping environmental learning (Nguyen et al., Reference Nguyen, Osman, Suhandoko, Serrano and Intaratat2024). The research was framed as a contextual case study of an agrarian, climate-vulnerable region (Zahra & Khan, Reference Zahra and Khan2023).
Rather than claiming full participatory action research, the study adopted a PAR-informed, community-engaged approach, incorporating participatory workshops and consultation with community members during data collection and interpretation (Díaz & García, Reference Díaz and García2024). This design enhances methodological triangulation and contextual depth, consistent with recommendations in environmental education research emphasising integrated empirical and interpretive inquiry (Jensen & Schnack, Reference Jensen and Schnack2020).
Research design
The convergent parallel mixed-methods design enabled the simultaneous collection and analysis of quantitative and qualitative data, allowing for comparative interpretation and validation of findings (Creswell & Plano Clark, Reference Creswell and Plano Clark2018). Quantitative components measured key dimensions of action competence; knowledge, motivationaction skills while qualitative components examined lived experiences and socio-cultural mechanisms shaping ESE engagement.
Participatory elements included community workshops where participants reflected on environmental challenges and locally relevant sustainability practices. These engagements informed contextual interpretation of results but did not involve participants as formal co-analysts. Such a community-engaged design aligns with methodological approaches in environmental education that combine measurement of competencies with contextual exploration of learning processes (Olsson & Gericke, Reference Olsson and Gericke2021).
Study context
The study was conducted in North Sindh, particularly in the districts of Sukkur and Shikarpur. The region is characterised by agrarian livelihoods, periodic flooding, water scarcity and pronounced rural–urban educational disparities (Zahra & Khan, Reference Zahra and Khan2023). In this study, “urban” refers to small town and peri-urban settlements with relatively greater access to secondary schools, municipal services and NGO programmes, compared with surrounding rural villages.
Environmental challenges intersect with socio-economic vulnerabilities, making the region a relevant setting for investigating community-based sustainability education. Informal environmental knowledge transmitted through familial practices and local storytelling coexists with formal schooling, though integration between these domains remains limited (Shah & Khan, Reference Shah and Khan2022).
Participants and sampling
Participants were purposively sampled to capture diverse perspectives on ESE across family, educational and community contexts. The study involved 120 participants, including 60 family representatives (parents and one adolescent aged 12–18), 30 educators from higher education institutions and NGOs and 30 community representatives engaged in environmental initiatives. Recruitment was facilitated through community networks and institutional partnerships using purposive and snowball strategies (Alam & Parvin, Reference Alam and Parvin2021).
Inclusion criteria required involvement in environmental education or sustainability-related activities, proficiency in Sindhi or Urdu and voluntary consent. Participants represented 48% rural and 52% small-town or peri-urban communities. Qualitative sampling continued until thematic saturation was reached after 25 interviews (Price, Reference Price2025).
Data collection
Data were collected between January and June 2025 through a combination of surveys, interviews, focus groups and participatory workshops. Quantitative data were obtained through structured surveys (n = 120) measuring action competence constructs adapted from the Action Competence Instrument for Sustainability (Olsson & Gericke, Reference Olsson and Gericke2021) and environmental literacy scales (Yli-Panula et al., Reference Yli-Panula, Jeronen, Lemmetty and Pauna2021). To accommodate a low-literacy, agrarian context, items were simplified, translated into Sindhi and administered orally when necessary. The instrument was piloted with 15 participants to refine wording and contextual relevance. Internal reliability was satisfactory (Cronbach’s α = 0.87).
Qualitative data included 25 semi-structured interviews, three focus groups and two participatory workshops. Interviews explored perceptions of ESE, intergenerational environmental learning and barriers to environmental action. Workshops facilitated community reflection on environmental challenges and locally appropriate sustainability practices. Sessions were audio-recorded, transcribed verbatim and translated where required using back-translation procedures to ensure linguistic accuracy.
Data analysis
Quantitative data were analysed using SPSS (v.28). Descriptive statistics summarised action competence indicators, while inferential tests examined demographic and rural–urban differences. Effect sizes (Cohen’s d) assessed practical significance and non-parametric tests were used where statistical assumptions were not met. Reliability analysis confirmed internal consistency across subscales (α > 0.80).
Qualitative data were analysed through reflexive thematic analysis (Reid & Dillon, Reference Reid and Dillon2021). Coding combined inductive identification of themes with deductive interpretation informed by action competence theory (Jensen & Schnack, Reference Jensen and Schnack2020). NVivo software supported systematic coding and theme development. Credibility was enhanced through participant feedback during workshops and peer review of coding decisions. Integration of quantitative and qualitative strands occurred during interpretation using joint displays to enable triangulation of findings (Creswell & Plano Clark, Reference Creswell and Plano Clark2018).
Ethical consideration
Ethical approval was obtained from the institutional review board (IRB-EE-2024-017). Participants provided informed consent, with verbal or thumb-printed consent available to accommodate literacy diversity. Confidentiality was maintained through pseudonymisation and secure data storage. Engagement with community elders and local leaders ensured culturally appropriate research procedures.
Limitations
The purposive sampling strategy limits statistical generalisation beyond North Sindh. Self-reported survey responses may be influenced by social desirability bias, although triangulation with qualitative evidence mitigates this risk. Seasonal disruptions associated with monsoon conditions constrained opportunities for longitudinal observation. Nonetheless, the case study approach prioritises contextual depth and interpretive insight, consistent with environmental education research traditions (Yin, 2018).
Results
This section presents integrated quantitative and qualitative findings on action competence development through ESE in North Sindh, Pakistan. Data from surveys (n = 120), interviews (n = 25), focus groups (n = 3) and participatory workshops (n = 2) were triangulated to enhance interpretive validity. Quantitative results identify competence patterns, while qualitative themes contextualise lived experiences. Tables 2–6 summarise empirical outcomes.
Action competence subscale scores (n = 120)
Table 2. Long description
The table presents action competence subscale scores for 120 participants, detailing the mean, standard deviation, and interpretation for four categories: Motivation, Knowledge, Action Skills, and Overall Competence. Motivation has a mean of 4.12 and a standard deviation of 0.68, interpreted as Strong. Knowledge has a mean of 3.91 and a standard deviation of 0.72, also interpreted as Strong. Action Skills has a mean of 3.41 and a standard deviation of 0.85, interpreted as a Relative Weakness. Overall Competence has a mean of 3.82 and a standard deviation of 0.76, interpreted as Moderate-High.
Rural–Urban action skill comparison
Table 3. Long description
The table compares action skill scores between rural and urban groups. It has four rows and four columns. The columns are labeled Group, Mean, SD, and Statistical result. The rural group, with 58 participants, has a mean score of 3.14 and a standard deviation of 0.82, serving as the reference. The urban group, with 62 participants, has a mean score of 3.68 and a standard deviation of 0.78. The statistical result for the urban group is t (118) = 2.45, p < 0.05, indicating a significant difference. The effect size is reported as d = 0.45, which is moderate.
Family engagement and knowledge correlation
Table 4. Long description
A table with two rows and three columns presents data on the correlation between family engagement and knowledge with engagement and motivation. The first row shows a correlation of 0.62 with a significance level of p less than 0.01 for family engagement and knowledge. The second row indicates a correlation of 0.58 with a significance level of p less than 0.01 for family engagement and motivation. The table highlights the positive relationships and statistical significance of these correlations.
Family dynamics (Integrated evidence)
Table 5. Long description
A table with three rows and three columns presents data on family dynamics. The columns are labeled Theme, Quantitative evidence, and Qualitative insight. The themes include Storytelling, Home practices, and Place attachment. Storytelling shows eighty-two percent agreement with a mean of four point thirty-five, and the qualitative insight is Legends motivate action. Home practices show seventy-six percent engagement with a correlation of zero point fifty-eight with knowledge, and the qualitative insight is Composting teaches ecological limits. Place attachment shows eighty-nine percent heightened motivation, and the qualitative insight is Nature experiences sustain commitment.
Barriers and enablers affecting environmental action competence in communities of North Sindh
Table 6. Long description
The table presents integrated quantitative and qualitative findings on action competence development through environmental education in North Sindh, Pakistan. It includes data from surveys, interviews, focus groups, and participatory workshops. The table is divided into three main categories: Structural barriers, Socio-cultural barriers, and Community enablers. Each category lists factors identified, the percentage of participants reporting each factor, and a description of the factor. Structural barriers include infrastructure deficits, water scarcity, and limited institutional support. Socio-cultural barriers include gender-based mobility constraints and low environmental literacy. Community enablers include intergenerational knowledge sharing, NGO and community programs, and collective problem-solving traditions. The table highlights the percentage of participants reporting each factor and provides a detailed description of each factor’s impact on environmental action competence.
Note: Percentages represent the proportion of participants who identified each factor during surveys or interviews (N = total participants). Participants could report multiple barriers or enablers.
Quantitative results: Action competence patterns
Overall action competence scores indicated moderate-to-high proficiency (M = 3.82/5, SD = 0.76). Subscale analysis revealed strengths in motivation and knowledge but relative weaknesses in action skills (Table 2).
Motivation scored highest (M = 4.12), reflecting participants’ positive orientation toward sustainability. Knowledge scores (M = 3.91) indicated familiarity with environmental concepts. Action skills lagged (M = 3.41), suggesting limited opportunities to translate understanding into practical environmental action (refer to Figure 2).
Highlighting action competence subscale means.
Figure 2. Long description
The bar graph compares the mean scores of three action competence subscales: motivation, knowledge, and action skills. The x-axis labels the subscales, while the y-axis represents the mean score ranging from 0 to 5. The motivation bar reaches a mean score slightly above 4, the knowledge bar is slightly below 4, and the action skills bar is slightly above 3. All values are approximated.
Rural–urban and gender comparisons
Inferential analyses identified significant rural–urban disparities in action skills (Table 3). Urban participants outperformed rural counterparts (t(118) = 2.45, p < 0.05, d = 0.45), highlighting inequitable access to skill-building opportunities.
Gender differences in action skills were non-significant (t(118) = 0.89, p = 0.38), indicating comparable competence across male and female participants. However, females reported higher motivation (M = 4.28 vs. 3.97 for males), suggesting stronger emotional engagement with sustainability themes (refer to Figure 3).
Highlighting action skills of rural versus urban participants.
Figure 3. Long description
The bar graph compares mean action skill scores between rural and urban participants. The x-axis represents the two groups, labeled ‘Rural’ and ‘Urban,’ while the y-axis indicates the mean action skill score, ranging from 0 to 5. The graph features two vertical bars: one for rural participants and one for urban participants. The bar for rural participants reaches a score slightly above 3, while the bar for urban participants reaches a score slightly below 4. The bars are colored blue. The title of the graph is ‘Action Skills: Rural vs Urban Participants.’ All values are approximated.
Correlations between family engagement and knowledge
Correlation analysis demonstrated a positive relationship between family-based ESE engagement and environmental knowledge (r = 0.62, p < 0.01). Participants engaging in weekly environmental discussions at home (78%) achieved higher knowledge scores, underscoring the pedagogical value of informal learning (see Table 4).
These results indicate that familial practices function as critical sites of environmental learning, reinforcing knowledge and motivational dimensions of action competence (refer to Figure 4).
Highlighting motivation scores by gender.
Qualitative themes
Thematic analysis produced three interrelated themes: family dynamics in knowledge and motivation, community programmes and action skills and barriers and enablers.
Family dynamics in knowledge and motivation
Families operated as “living classrooms” where environmental understanding and values were transmitted through storytelling and relational pedagogies. Participants described oral traditions as mechanisms for ecological learning.
“Grandma’s flood legends teach us to act now, not wait for government.” (Focus Group 1, Rural Youth). Survey evidence supported these narratives: 82% agreed that family stories inspired sustainable action (M = 4.35). Emotional connections to place further strengthened motivation (89% agreement).
As indicated in Table 5, these findings illustrate families’ capacity to embed ESE within cultural practices, generating motivational resources that complement formal education.
Community programmes and action skills
Community initiatives enhanced action skills by translating knowledge into practical problem-solving. Participants involved in local projects (65%) reported higher skill scores (M = 3.72) than non-engagers (M = 3.09; t (118) = 3.21, p < 0.01). HEI-led workshops functioned as “action laboratories,” enabling collaborative innovation:
“A farmer’s wife sketched a filtration design; by week’s end, we built it together.” (Interview 18, Female Educator). Qualitative evidence emphasised skill development in planning and collective environmental action, particularly through flood-prevention and resource-management projects.
Barriers and enablers
Structural and cultural constraints moderated competence development (Table 6). Resource limitations were widely reported (61%) and rural participants perceived fewer enabling conditions (M = 2.91 vs. 3.78; t (118) = 4.02, p < 0.001).
Integrated interpretation
Triangulation of quantitative and qualitative evidence revealed convergence across datasets. High motivation and knowledge scores aligned with familial storytelling practices, whereas action skill deficits reflected infrastructural and institutional limitations. Rural–urban disparities underscored unequal access to resources and opportunities.
Overall, results depict a dynamic ESE ecosystem in North Sindh characterised by strong motivational foundations but uneven skill translation. Families and communities act as critical learning sites; however, structural interventions are required to strengthen action-oriented competencies and environmental agency.
Discussion
This study contributes to understanding the development of action competence through family-and community-based ESE in North Sindh, Pakistan. The findings indicate moderate-to-high overall action competence, with knowledge and motivation scoring higher than action skills. This pattern broadly aligns with action competence theory, which conceptualises environmental agency as the integration of knowledge, motivation and the capacity for strategic action (Jensen & Schnack, Reference Jensen and Schnack2020). Participants demonstrated strong environmental awareness and commitment; however, the comparatively lower development of action skills highlights a persistent gap between environmental understanding and practical agency (Husamah et al., Reference Husamah, Suwono, Nur and Dharmawan2022).
The relatively strong motivational dimension appears closely linked to relational and affective learning processes embedded within family and community life. Participants frequently referred to intergenerational narratives concerning floods, changing rainfall patterns and agricultural challenges as shaping their environmental awareness and sense of responsibility. These place-based experiences functioned as important catalysts for environmental concern and sustainable behaviour. Such findings support scholarship emphasising the role of emotional engagement, cultural identity and lived experience in fostering environmental commitment (Chawla, Reference Chawla2020). Nevertheless, motivation alone does not necessarily translate into transformative environmental action. The comparatively lower action skills scores indicate limited opportunities for participants to engage in collaborative problem-solving, strategic planning, or organised environmental initiatives, all of which are central components of action competence (Jensen & Schnack, Reference Jensen and Schnack2020).
Family dynamics and informal environmental learning
Families emerged as important sites of environmental knowledge transmission and motivational development. High levels of engagement in home-based ESE activities and their positive association with knowledge scores highlight the educational significance of informal learning environments. Intergenerational storytelling, cultural traditions and everyday household practices embedded environmental awareness within routine social interactions (Yli-Panula et al., Reference Yli-Panula, Jeronen, Lemmetty and Pauna2021).
In agrarian regions such as North Sindh, environmental understanding is frequently grounded in lived experience and traditional ecological knowledge rather than formal curricular instruction. Participants’ references to agricultural practices, water management traditions and local experiences of flooding illustrate how community-based knowledge systems contribute to environmental literacy. These observations correspond with research emphasising the importance of recognising indigenous and local knowledge within sustainability education (Sanchez & Peterson, Reference Sanchez and Peterson2024). From a decolonial perspective, such knowledge represents an important epistemic resource that complements formal education and enhances contextual relevance (Díaz & García, Reference Díaz and García2024).
However, while family-based learning environments effectively nurture awareness and motivation, they do not necessarily foster action-oriented competencies. Environmental values transmitted through familial narratives do not automatically translate into organised environmental initiatives or strategic environmental planning. This observation reflects broader critiques within environmental education literature that many initiatives emphasise awareness and attitudes while giving less attention to the practical competencies required for environmental action (Vare & Scott, Reference Vare and Scott2023).
Community engagement and action skill development
Community engagement demonstrated potential to strengthen action competence, particularly in relation to action skills. Participants who reported involvement in environmental initiatives displayed comparatively higher action skill scores than those without such engagement. Community workshops, NGO-supported programmes and collaborative environmental activities created opportunities for participants to apply environmental knowledge in practical contexts.
These findings correspond with evidence suggesting that community-based environmental education can strengthen civic participation and environmental agency (Milupi et al., Reference Milupi, Mweemba and Mubita2023). Through engagement in local initiatives, including water conservation practices, waste management activities and responses to environmental risks, community programmes help translate environmental awareness into practical action. Such initiatives also contribute to the development of social capital and collective responsibility, both of which are essential components of sustainability education (Alam & Parvin, Reference Alam and Parvin2021).
Nevertheless, participation in community initiatives remained uneven across the study area. Several participants reported limited access to organised environmental programmes due to resource constraints, logistical challenges and limited institutional support. As a result, the potential of participatory ESE to strengthen action competence remains only partially realised.
Rural–urban disparities and structural inequalities
The observed rural–urban differences in action skills highlight broader structural inequalities shaping environmental competence. Participants from small towns and peri-urban areas benefited from greater access to educational institutions, NGOs and organised environmental programmes (Wals, Reference Wals2022). In contrast, rural communities faced infrastructural limitations and fewer opportunities to participate in environmental initiatives. These patterns reflect wider socio-economic disparities influencing educational opportunities in Pakistan and comparable Global South contexts (Shah & Khan, Reference Shah and Khan2022).
Environmental education research increasingly recognises that competence development is embedded within structural conditions rather than solely individual capacities. Action skills require opportunities for collaboration, practical engagement and institutional support (Sass et al., Reference Sass, De Maeyer, Boeve-de Pauw and Van Petegem2022). In resource-constrained contexts, such enabling conditions are often unevenly distributed, limiting the translation of environmental awareness into meaningful environmental action.
Gender dynamics also revealed subtle variations in environmental engagement. Female participants reported slightly higher levels of environmental motivation, a finding consistent with research highlighting women’s involvement in community sustainability initiatives (Uzzell & Räthzel, Reference Uzzell and Räthzel2021). However, cultural expectations and mobility restrictions limited participation in certain community activities for some women.
Theoretical implications
This study contributes to environmental education scholarship by extending the ACA to a non-Western agrarian context characterised by climate vulnerability and socio-economic constraints. The findings demonstrate that environmental knowledge and motivation can emerge through culturally embedded family and community practices, while the development of action skills depends more strongly on participatory opportunities and institutional support.
The results also reinforce decolonial perspectives in sustainability education, which emphasise the importance of recognising local knowledge systems and culturally grounded pedagogies (Díaz & García, Reference Díaz and García2024). Participants’ reliance on traditional ecological narratives illustrates how environmental learning is shaped by collective memory, community experience and cultural identity. Integrating such knowledge systems with formal educational initiatives can strengthen the cultural relevance and effectiveness of sustainability education.
At the same time, the knowledge–action gap identified in this study reflects longstanding critiques within environmental education concerning the limited behavioural impact of awareness-based approaches (Jensen & Schnack, Reference Jensen and Schnack2020). Knowledge and motivation are necessary foundations for environmental engagement, but they remain insufficient for sustained environmental change. Educational strategies must therefore prioritise experiential learning, collaborative problem-solving and opportunities for collective environmental action. Strengthening these dimensions may help bridge the gap between environmental understanding and practical engagement, particularly in resource-constrained contexts such as North Sindh.
Conclusion
This study demonstrates that family and community systems in North Sindh play a crucial role in fostering environmental knowledge and motivation, while the development of action skills remains comparatively limited. Although the overall action competence profile indicates moderate-to-high environmental agency, variations across subscales reveal a consistent pattern: participants possess strong awareness and positive attitudes towards sustainability but have fewer opportunities to translate these dispositions into strategic and collective environmental action.
Family-based ESE emerged as a central driver of environmental learning and motivation. Intergenerational storytelling, lived experiences of climate variability and everyday household environmental practices strengthened ecological understanding while also deepening emotional connections to place. These culturally embedded processes reinforce sustainability values and shape environmental responsibility (Chawla, Reference Chawla2020; Yli-Panula et al., Reference Yli-Panula, Jeronen, Lemmetty and Pauna2021). In agrarian and rural contexts such as North Sindh, where livelihoods are closely tied to environmental conditions, such informal learning pathways represent a particularly significant source of environmental knowledge (Schönstein & Budke, Reference Schönstein and Budke2024). However, while family systems effectively cultivate awareness and motivation, they are less effective in developing structured action skills. Bridging this gap requires intentional opportunities for experiential learning, participatory engagement and collaborative problem-solving that extend beyond household-level learning (Husamah et al., Reference Husamah, Suwono, Nur and Dharmawan2022).
Community-based initiatives demonstrated stronger potential for developing action skills by converting environmental knowledge into collective practice. Participants engaged in local environmental programmes showed higher levels of planning ability, collaboration and problem-solving, highlighting the value of participatory learning environments (Rai & Robinson, Reference Rai and Robinson2023).
Such initiatives operationalise action competence by enabling individuals to engage with real-world environmental challenges and reflect on practical outcomes (Olsson & Gericke, Reference Olsson and Gericke2021). However, uneven participation, limited geographic coverage and weak institutional support significantly constrain the reach and effectiveness of these programmes (Leal Filho et al., Reference Leal Filho, Raath, Lazzarini, Vargas, de Souza, Anholon, Quelhas, Haddad, Klavins and Orlovic2021).
Overall, the findings suggest several implications for strengthening sustainability education. Educational programmes should prioritise experiential, action-oriented pedagogies that connect learning with real community environmental challenges. Integrating family knowledge systems, intergenerational narratives and traditional ecological practices can enhance cultural relevance and strengthen motivational dimensions of learning.
Future research should adopt longitudinal approaches to examine how action competence evolves over time and should include comparative studies across diverse Global South contexts. Such work would provide deeper insights into the structural, cultural and institutional factors shaping environmental agency and support the development of more inclusive and context-responsive sustainability education frameworks.
Acknowledgements
The corresponding author expresses sincere gratitude to colleagues and reviewers whose constructive feedback and scholarly insights contributed to improving the quality and clarity of this manuscript. Appreciation is also extended to academic peers and institutional networks that provided intellectual support during the development of this research.
Ethical statement
This study relied exclusively on secondary data and publicly available scholarly sources. No human participants, personal data, or identifiable information were involved. Consequently, formal ethical approval was not required in accordance with standard institutional research guidelines.
Financial support
This research received no specific grant from any funding agency in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors.
Author Biographies
Raja Bahar Khan Soomro is a faculty member at the Shaikh Ayaz University Shikarpur researcher working in the areas of human rights education, sustainable development, and community resilience in Pakistan. His research focuses on the integration of education for sustainable development and human rights frameworks within higher education and community-based development initiatives, particularly in Sindh. His academic interests include the implementation of SDG-4, climate resilience, social inclusion, and the role of higher education in advancing equitable and sustainable societies. He has contributed to interdisciplinary research examining education, sustainability, and development policy in the Global South.
Zafarullah Sahito is dean of the department of education and an academic specialising in educational leadership, governance, and higher education policy. His research explores institutional development, teacher education, and policy reforms aimed at improving the quality and inclusiveness of education systems. He has published on educational management, leadership practices, and policy analysis with a focus on developing contexts. His work contributes to debates on educational transformation, quality assurance, and the role of higher education institutions in supporting sustainable development and social progress.
Nadir Hussain Bhayo is head of the department at the Shaikh Ayaz University Shikarpur and a researcher whose work focuses on environmental education, sustainability studies, and the role of education in fostering ecological awareness and social change. His research interests include interdisciplinary approaches to sustainability, climate education, and community engagement in environmental learning. He contributes to scholarly and applied research exploring how educational institutions and community initiatives can support environmental stewardship and sustainable development. His work particularly engages with sustainability challenges and educational responses in developing regions.
Abdul Basit Soomro is a faculty member at the SZABIST University Larkana Campus and is engaged in research and development initiatives focusing on sustainable development, social inclusion, and community resilience. His work addresses climate adaptation, sustainable livelihoods, and development practices in rural and marginalised communities. He has contributed to field-based projects and collaborative studies that examine the intersection of environmental sustainability, community development, and policy implementation. His research interests include participatory development approaches and strategies for strengthening resilience among vulnerable populations.
Adil Hussain Ghani Soomro is a researcher interested in environmental governance, sustainable development, and community-centred approaches to environmental management. His work explores the role of education, local institutions, and community participation in addressing environmental challenges and promoting sustainable practices. He contributes to interdisciplinary research examining sustainability transitions, climate awareness, and inclusive development in developing contexts. His research aims to strengthen the link between environmental education and community-based sustainability initiatives.
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