Pangolins are mammals of the order Pholidota, family Manidae (Simpson, Reference Simpson1945). They primarily feed on ants and termites and possess unique overlapping keratin scales, from which their common name scaly anteaters derives (Heath & Vanderlip, Reference Heath and Vanderlip1988). Of the eight pangolin species, the Chinese pangolin Manis pentadactyla and Indian pangolin Manis crassicaudata occur in Nepal (Challender et al., Reference Challender, Wu, Kaspal, Khatiwada, Ghose and Ching-Min Sun2019). The Chinese pangolin is widely distributed across South and Southeast Asia, and known as salak in Nepal. This species is categorized as Critically Endangered on the IUCN Red List because of habitat loss and poaching (Challender et al., Reference Challender, Wu, Kaspal, Khatiwada, Ghose and Ching-Min Sun2019; CITES, 2022). In Nepal, it is a protected species under the National Parks and Wildlife Conservation Act of 1973 and is categorized nationally as Endangered (Jnawali, Reference Jnawali2011). The species thrives in diverse landscapes, usually below 2,500 m altitude (Challender et al., Reference Challender, Wu, Kaspal, Khatiwada, Ghose and Ching-Min Sun2019), including riverine forests, sal Shorea robusta forests, grasslands and agricultural areas (Sharma et al., Reference Sharma, Rimal, Zhang, Sharma, Poudyal and Maharjan2020a), where it excavates its own burrows or enlarges termite passages (Wu et al., Reference Wu, Ma, Chen, Xu, Li and Liu2004; Newton et al., Reference Newton, Van Thai, Roberton and Bell2008).

The Chinese pangolin was hitherto known from 27 districts in Nepal (DNPWC & DoF, 2018; DNPWC, 2019; Suwal et al., Reference Suwal, Thapa, Gurung, Aryal, Basnet and Basnet2020), within protected areas in 14 districts and outside protected areas in 13 districts. However, knowledge of its occurrence in eastern Nepal is poor. There are anecdotal records of the species in Sunsari district, and a report of a seized individual in the district (Bashyal et al., Reference Bashyal, Shrestha, Dhakal, Khanal and Shrestha2021), but the origin of the latter could not be verified.

The 0.56 km² Panchakanya forest in the Siwalik foothills of the 1,257 km² Sunsari district lies at elevations of 460–650 m. This forest is fragmented and surrounded by dense urban settlements on the north, west and south, and bordered by the Sewti River to the east. The forest is dominated by sal interspersed with chilaune Schima wallichii, siris Albizia procera, bel Aegle marmelos, pipal Ficus religiosa, khirro Sapium insigne, simal Bombax ceiba and bar Ficus bengalensis. Although anecdotal records suggest the presence of pangolins in Panchakanya forest, and the habitat is suitable, the only previous records are of several burrows and pugmarks (Subba et al., Reference Subba, Tamang, Lama, Limbu, Kyes and Khanal2024). Although the Chinese pangolin and the Indian crested porcupine Hystrix indica are sympatric in the mid-hills of Nepal (Jnawali, Reference Jnawali2011), pangolin burrows can be differentiated from those of the porcupine with reasonable confidence by examining characteristics such as burrow dimensions, shape, presence of pugmarks, tail drag or porcupine quills. Nevertheless, signs of potential pangolin presence in Panchakanya forest are not definitive evidence, and therefore we aimed to verify the presence of the Chinese pangolin in this location.

We deployed two camera traps (BTC–5HDPX and BTC–6FHD, Browning, USA) on trails and near recently dug burrows. Potential sites of pangolin occurrence were identified through evidence such as freshly excavated burrows, active foraging marks, soil spillage and tracks. We rotated the cameras across 14 locations (Fig. 1), moving them to a new location each night. Cameras were active from 18.00 to 6.00 during 20–26 January 2025 for a total of 14 trap-nights. Eight cameras were placed at recently active burrows and six along frequently used wildlife trails. The cameras were tied to a tree or a pole, 30–40 cm above the ground, and retrieved during daytime to prevent theft. Cameras were set to run continuously in video mode, recording a 20 s clip per trigger, with a time interval of 10 s between subsequent triggers.

Fig. 1

Panchakanya forest, Sunsari district, Nepal, showing camera-trap sites and the camera trap where the Chinese pangolin Manis pentadactyla was recorded. The forest is highly fragmented and surrounded by dense urban settlements to the north, west and south, and bordered by the Sewti River to the east.

On 21 January 2025, we captured two videos (a 20 s clip at 22.03 and a 13 s clip at 22.06) of a male Chinese pangolin at the same location, likely the same individual, at an elevation of 546 m. This is the first camera-verified evidence of the Chinese pangolin in Sunsari district (Plate 1). The species was identified by its distinctive scale size, short and rounded snout, and relatively short tail.

Plate 1

Camera-trap photograph of the Chinese pangolin Manis pentadactyla recorded in the Panchakanya forest, Sunsari district, Nepal (Fig. 1), on 21 January 2025.

Given that Chinese pangolins have a small home range (0.351 km², Lin, Reference Lin2011; < 1 km², Sharma et al., Reference Sharma, Rimal, Zhang, Sharma, Poudyal and Maharjan2020a), this individual likely resides in Panchakanya forest. Four additional mammal species (the large Indian civet Viverra zibetha, crab-eating mongoose Herpestes urva, common palm civet Paradoxurus hermaphroditus and golden jackal Canis aureus) were also detected by the camera traps.

During the field surveys, we observed multiple burrows and a concentration of foraging signs in areas with soft, moist soil that are favourable for termite and ant colonies (Cornelius & Osbrink, Reference Cornelius and Osbrink2010). This suggests that the occurrence of pangolins in Panchakanya forest is linked to the abundance of ant and termite mounds in suitable soil conditions, supporting previous findings that pangolins exhibit food selectivity and foraging patterns based on prey availability and distribution (Wu, Reference Wu2005; Lee et al., Reference Lee, Cheung, Fellowes and Guénard2017; Sharma et al., Reference Sharma, Rimal, Zhang, Sharma, Poudyal and Maharjan2020a; Sharma et al., Reference Sharma, Sharma, Chaulagain, Katuwal and Belant2020c; Tamang et al., Reference Tamang, Sharma and Belant2022; Subba et al., Reference Subba, Tamang, Lama, Limbu, Kyes and Khanal2024).

Pangolins are regarded as the most heavily trafficked mammals, and across Nepal they are threatened by illegal hunting, trafficking and habitat degradation (Paudel et al., Reference Paudel, Acharya, Baral, Heinen and Jnawali2020; Bashyal et al., Reference Bashyal, Shrestha, Dhakal, Khanal and Shrestha2021; Suwal et al., Reference Suwal, Gurung and Pei2023). Approximately 94% of Nepal’s potential Chinese pangolin habitat is outside protected areas, primarily in community forests (Sharma et al., Reference Sharma, Rimal, Zhang, Sharma, Poudyal and Maharjan2020a). Of this, 44% lies in the mid-hills and only 14% lies in the Siwalik foothills and Terai in eastern and central Nepal, respectively (Sharma et al., Reference Sharma, Rimal, Zhang, Sharma, Poudyal and Maharjan2020a; Sharma et al., Reference Sharma, Sharma, Chaulagain, Katuwal and Belant2020c).

Panchakanya Temple, a sacred shrine revered by Hindu communities, lies within Panchakanya. Panchakanya refers to the five divine maidens (Ahalya, Draupadi, Kunti, Tara and Mandodari) of Hindu mythology, together symbolizing purity, protection and blessing. Panchakanya forest also holds significant cultural and spiritual importance for the Kirat communities. The forest is a venue for celebrating Udhauli and Ubhauli, the major Kirati festivals that mark the seasonal transition. Udhauli signifies the downhill migration to lower altitudes during winter, and Ubhauli the upward movement to higher elevations in summer, for farming activities. During these ritual periods, community members gather inside the forest to perform the Sakela dance, expressing gratitude to nature, land and ancestral deities for agricultural productivity, protection and well-being. Given the protection afforded to this small urban forest by the presence of the temple, the area is a potential refuge for the Critically Endangered Chinese pangolin.

This study provides the first confirmation, with camera-trap evidence, of the Chinese pangolin in Sunsari district in eastern Nepal. With this verified record, the total number of districts in Nepal where the species has been documented is now 28. Our finding also highlights the need for targeted surveys in community forests outside protected areas. Almost all lowland districts in Nepal possess habitat broadly similar to that of Panchakanya forest. Based on our findings, we recommend: (1) continued camera-trap and burrow monitoring to improve knowledge of occurrence and activity, (2) community-based protection to reduce any poaching risk, and (3) raising awareness about pangolin conservation. The presence of the Chinese pangolin in this sacred forest enriches the ecological significance of this urban habitat. Protection of the pangolin in this context is an opportunity to link cultural values with conservation awareness.