2. Theoretical background

Reference Crilly, Moultrie and ClarksonCrilly et al. (2004, Reference Crilly, Moultrie and Clarkson2009) consider products to be the communicative media between designers, consumers, and their respective environments. Consequently, designers express their intentions through the design of products, whereby consumers within their environment attribute meanings to these intentions, which is reflected in behavioural responses (Reference Crilly, Moultrie and ClarksonCrilly et al., 2004). The DfCB research field builds on this idea, suggesting that designers can actively shape consumer behaviour towards pro-environmental actions through product design (Reference Sohn and NamSohn & Nam, 2015). Figure 1 illustrates this conceptual understanding of the key relationships between designers, product designs, and consumers, which forms the foundation of this paper.

Figure 1.

Key relationships between designers, product design, and consumers

The overall objective of DfCB is to design consumers’ behavioural changes towards the CE. The term consumer behaviour refers to the entirety of decisions and actions taken by individuals in their role as consumers with the aim of satisfying individual desires and needs (Reference SolomonSolomon, 2020). These can be simplified into the three phases pre-purchase, purchase, and post-purchase (Reference SolomonSolomon, 2020). This publication refers to circular behaviour when consumers act in accordance with the principles of the CE. In contrast, non-circular behaviour is characterised as harmful, insufficient, or excessive product-user interaction (Reference Balikci, Borgianni, Maccioni and NezziBalikci et al., 2021). An example of a non-circular behaviour is the storage of products that are no longer needed instead of looping them back into the resource cycle, which means that their utilisation is not maximised (Reference Wastling, Charnley and MorenoWastling et al., 2018). Figure 1 illustrates that such behavioural changes result from consumers’ reactions to a product design. The figure also shows that designers influence products through design interventions. This study understands design interventions as the application of measures such as design strategies to product design in order to change a behaviour (Reference Kuo, Tseng, Lin, Wang and LeeKuo et al., 2018). One example of such a design intervention is the use of anthropomorphic strategies, where products are given human-like characteristics (Reference Ishigaki, Shreeves and MadhabikaIshigaki et al., 2025). This can achieve stronger product attachment leading to extended use, as well as triggering behaviours through direct messages such as ‘recycle me’ (Reference Ishigaki, Shreeves and MadhabikaIshigaki et al., 2025). However, design interventions merely predict possible behaviour changes. There is no guarantee that the intended behaviour change will in fact occur, as this depends on the individual consumer (Reference Balikci, Borgianni, Maccioni and NezziBalikci et al., 2021; Reference Irizar-Arrieta, Casado-Mansilla, Retegi, Laschke and López-de-IpiñaIrizar-Arrieta et al., 2020). Within DfCB, therefore, assumptions are made about consumers and how they will react to the intervention (Reference Lockton, Harrison and StantonLockton et al., 2012). Accordingly, designers need to be able to modify product designs using effective design interventions to induce the intended behavioural change in line with the CE principles.

3. State of the art in DfCB research

Early investigations into how design can influence consumer behaviour in the context of sustainability emerged in the early 2000s. A key contribution was made by Reference Jelsma and KnotJelsma and Knot (2002), who established the concept of scripts as a design strategy within the DfCB research field. Scripts refer to product designs that act as embedded user manuals, prescribing how the product should be used (Reference Jelsma and KnotJelsma & Knot, 2002; Reference Zachrisson and BoksZachrisson & Boks, 2012). For example, a plastic coffee cup is perceived as a disposable product, whereas a porcelain cup encourages more careful handling (Reference EliasElias, 2011). Building on this, Reference Lilley, Lofthouse and BhamraLilley et al. (2005) developed the three strategies of scripts and behaviour steering, eco-feedback, and intelligent products and systems. While the first strategy continues to focus on guiding and steering consumer behaviour, the eco-feedback strategy raises consumers’ awareness of the environmental impact of their actions (Reference Lilley, Lofthouse and BhamraLilley et al., 2005). For example, visual or acoustic signals can be used to draw consumers’ attention to inappropriate behaviour, enabling them to self-regulate (Reference Froehlich, Findlater, Landay, Mynatt, Fitzpatrick, Hudson, Edwards and RoddenFroehlich et al., 2010; Reference Lilley, Lofthouse and BhamraLilley et al., 2005). By contrast, the intelligent products and systems strategy takes control away from the consumer by forcing them to perform certain actions through the product itself (Reference Zachrisson and BoksZachrisson & Boks, 2012). One example of this is the automatic start-stop function of car engines at traffic lights to reduce CO₂ emissions (Reference Lilley, Lofthouse and BhamraLilley et al., 2005). These three strategies provide the basis for numerous subsequent studies focusing on their further development and classification. Comparable formulations of these strategies can be found in the studies of Reference Wever, van Kuijk and BoksWever et al. (2008), Reference Tang and BhamraTang and Bhamra (2008), Reference Lockton, Harrison and StantonLockton et al. (2008), Reference Steg and VlekSteg and Vlek (2009), and Reference Tromp, Hekkert and VerbeekTromp et al. (2011). Reference Zachrisson and BoksZachrisson and Boks (2010, Reference Zachrisson and Boks2012) categorised these strategies by the extent of control, ranging from user- to product control. Accordingly, strategies either guide, maintain, or ensure behavioural change (Reference Zachrisson and BoksZachrisson & Boks, 2012).

In addition to the identification, formulation, and application of DfCB design strategies, the literature also covers the development of methods to empower designers to influence consumer behaviour. The studies conducted by Reference Lockton, Harrison and StantonLockton et al. (2010, Reference Lockton, Harrison and Stanton2012) support behavioural design by outlining 101 patterns for influencing behaviour and dividing consumers into three user models, providing designers with a spectrum of representative consumer types. Both Reference Michie, van Stralen and WestMichie et al. (2011) and Reference de Medeiros, da Rocha and Ribeirode Medeiros et al. (2018) provide support for designers to assist them in selecting suitable design strategies. In their study, Reference Daae and BoksDaae and Boks (2015) analyse methods explicitly for user studies within DfCB. Reference TangTang (2010) provides a guide that maps the identification of consumer factors and the selection of design strategies into a five-step process. Similarly, Reference Selvefors, Pedersen, Rahe, Deserti, Zurlo and RizzoSelvefors et al. (2011) developed a six-step process and mapped it onto the generic product development process. Finally, the study conducted by Reference Wastling, Charnley and MorenoWastling et al. (2018) deserves particular attention, as it is the only study that explicitly addresses the topic of DfCB. The authors present a comprehensive overview of the essential components of a developed DfCB process, encompassing the design of the product and business model (Reference Wastling, Charnley and MorenoWastling et al., 2018).

Several studies within the DfCB research domain address the identification of barriers and success factors. Among these, Reference Coskun, Zimmerman and ErbugCoskun et al. (2015) conducted a literature review to assess the current state of research and outline future research directions. Their review revealed several barriers throughout the design process, including the absence of systematic criteria for selecting target behaviours and user groups, limited research on behaviours beyond energy consumption, and a lack of longitudinal studies demonstrating the long-term success of behavioural change (Reference Coskun, Zimmerman and ErbugCoskun et al., 2015). Reference Gustafsson, Harild and PigossoGustafsson et al. (2021) also conducted a literature review to identify potential barriers and success factors of DfCB within the context of product-service systems. They reported challenges including high diversity among consumer groups, oversimplification of user characteristics, and difficulties in maintaining desired behavioural changes over time (Reference Gustafsson, Harild and PigossoGustafsson et al., 2021). Reference Kuijer and BakkerKuijer and Bakker (2015) analysed four case studies in the DfCB context to identify limitations of the field of research. Among others, they stated that intended behavioural changes are not always achieved, and that opportunities for broader impact often remain unexploited (Reference Kuijer and BakkerKuijer & Bakker, 2015). Reference Lopez and LegardeurLopez and Legardeur (2024) conducted a literature review to identify barriers to, and motivators for implementing circular business models in relation to consumer behaviour. In their study, they identified factors such as accessibility of information about product quality, product ownership types, and demographic characteristics including education level and age (Reference Lopez and LegardeurLopez & Legardeur, 2024). Finally, Reference Camacho-Otero, Boks and PettersenCamacho-Otero et al. (2018) examined the state of research on consumption within the CE and identified factors influencing consumer acceptance, including personal characteristics such as the desire for change, perceived risks and uncertainties such as disgust, as well as psychological factors like consumer attitudes and social norms.

An examination of the current literature in the field of DfCB research shows that the focus is on the formulation and classification of design strategies on the one hand, and on the investigation of consumer acceptance and intentions on the other, although the latter is not taken into account in this study. To date, support has mainly focused on enabling designers to select design strategies and identifying consumer factors that can be addressed. Only a few studies focus on identifying barriers that need to be overcome or influencing factors that determine the effective design of consumer behaviour. Only the contributions of Reference Lopez and LegardeurLopez and Legardeur (2024) and Reference Camacho-Otero, Boks and PettersenCamacho-Otero et al. (2018) explicitly examine factors in the context of consumer behaviour. However, these studies consider the influence of consumers on CE rather than how design can influence consumer behaviour. To the best of our knowledge, there is no research that examines factors that determine the extent to which designers can effectively promote circular behaviour through product design. This contrasts with the literature, which often emphasises the relevance of designers in influencing consumer behaviour to promote the CE.

4. Research design

A literature-based approach was used to develop the conceptual model, following the systematic literature review procedure described by Reference Xiao and WatsonXiao and Watson (2019). According to this procedure, a systematic literature review is divided into the three phases of planning, conducting, and reporting. During the planning phase, the research questions introduced in Section 1 were defined with the aim of identifying the factors and relationships that determine the extent to which designers effectively facilitate circular behaviour through product design. To conduct the literature review, the SCOPUS and EBSCO databases were used to collect literature using the formulated search string shown in Table 1.

Table 1.

Search string used in the systematic literature review

The search string combines the topics of consumer behaviour and CE in the context of product design. Additionally, the search string includes terms to tailor the review according to this study’s objective, while simultaneously covering a broad range of literature in order to extract factors and relationships. A total of 1,800 publications were identified at the beginning of the review. The collected publications were screened based on titles and abstracts. In addition to removing duplicates, the publications were filtered based on their suitability for answering the research question. Publications investigating the perception, intention, and acceptance of consumers were analysed and filtered particularly carefully with regard to the perspective used and the relevance to product design. This resulted in a total of 65 publications being reviewed in full. Alongside the removal of publications considered unsuitable, additional literature was included through a forward-backward search. In total, 22 publications were used to develop the conceptual model. From these publications, factors were identified and extracted. As explicit investigations of relationships between factors are absent in DfCB research, these were derived from statements within the texts. The extracted data were then subjected to a thematic analysis following the procedure described by Reference Braun and ClarkeBraun and Clarke (2006). This involved initial coding, through which themes were identified, named, reviewed, and revised iteratively. The developed themes form the elements and relationships of the conceptual model, which represents the result for the reporting phase.

5. Research results

The literature-based conceptual model is shown in Figure 2. It explains which factors need to be in place and how they must interrelate in order for designers to facilitate circular behaviour through product design effectively. At the same time, the conceptual model explains why designers have difficulties in promoting circular behaviour through product design.

Figure 2.

Conceptual model for facilitating circular behaviour through product design

The consolidated factors are represented as rectangles, and the relationships as directed arrows. To improve the understanding of the model, an example is given of how it works in general before each factor and the relationships are described in detail. As an illustration of the model’s logic, a situation can be considered in which designers are highly aware of their influence on consumer behaviour (level of awareness of and responsibility for behavioural influence). This enables careful investigation of consumer behaviour, including a conscientious exploration of potential consumers, relevant behaviours, and the context of use (quality of consumer behaviour investigation). It also enables designers to reflect on decisions and thus counteract potential biases in the selection and design of interventions (quality of designed intervention). A high quality of consumer behaviour investigation provides a solid foundation for specifying target consumers and target behaviours (quality of behavioural target definition) and for selecting and realising design interventions (quality of designed intervention). Furthermore, a precise definition of target behaviours (quality of behavioural target definition) allows the design of effective interventions (quality of designed intervention), resulting in an increased degree to which product design facilitates circular behaviour.

7. Summary

The relevance of considering consumer behaviour to enhance product circularity is increasingly recognised, yet research remains limited and practical applications are scarce. Current literature primarily focuses on the (re)formulation of design interventions and the investigation of consumers’ perceptions, acceptance, and intentions, while neglecting an explicit examination of factors and their relationships from the designers’ perspective. This study presents a literature-based conceptual model illustrating the factors and their relationships that determine the extent to which designers can effectively facilitate circular behaviours through product design. The model emphasises the relevance of increasing designers’ awareness and understanding, while highlighting potential causes for the insufficient establishment of the DfCB. In addition to formulating recommendations for design practice, the results contribute to the scientific discourse by providing a foundation that highlights potential areas for improvement. Future research should improve the applicability of existing strategies, develop support for investigating consumer behaviour, and increase designers’ awareness and responsibility. Limitations include the reliance on implicit statements in the literature and the focus limited to behavioural influences in a CE. Future research directions should investigate factors from the designers’ perspective and integrate established literature on product design unrelated to sustainability in order to identify potential gaps in DfCB. Overall, this work contributes to establishing DfCB and the transition to a CE.