The dhole Cuon alpinus is a large canid that was historically distributed throughout Asia. It occurs across a range of habitat types (Gray & Phan, Reference Gray and Phan2011; Bashir et al., Reference Bashir, Bhattacharya, Poudyal, Roy and Sathyakumar2014; Pudyatmoko, Reference Pudyatmoko2019) and can utilize a broad prey base (Hayward et al., Reference Hayward, Lyngdoh and Habib2014; Aryal et al., Reference Aryal, Panthi, Barraclough, Bencini, Adhikari, Ji and Raubenheimer2015; Kamler et al., Reference Kamler, Thatdokkham, Rostro-García, Bousa, Caragiulo and Crouthers2020). Although formerly one of the most widespread and successful large carnivores in the region, the dhole has declined precipitously in recent decades, and the species is now absent or reduced in density across most of its former range (Kamler et al., Reference Kamler, Songsasen, Jenks, Srivathsa, Sheng and Kunkel2015). Threats include direct persecution, habitat loss and degradation, and depletion of its prey base (Kamler et al., Reference Kamler, Songsasen, Jenks, Srivathsa, Sheng and Kunkel2015). In Southeast Asia, the widespread use of snares has had a severe impact on dhole populations, as snares simultaneously kill dholes whilst also reducing their prey (Belecky & Gray, Reference Belecky and Gray2020). Because of these declines, the dhole is categorized as Endangered on the IUCN Red List (Kamler et al., Reference Kamler, Songsasen, Jenks, Srivathsa, Sheng and Kunkel2015).

Among Southeast Asian countries, the status of the dhole is believed to be of particular concern in Vietnam. Historically, the species was reported across most or all of the country (Dang et al., Reference Dang, Endo, Nguyen, Oshida, Canh, Phuong and Lunde2008), but there have been few confirmed recent records (Hoffmann et al., Reference Hoffmann, Abramov, Duc, Long, Nguyen and Son2019). Overall, the general lack of records, combined with the high levels of hunting across Vietnam (Belecky & Gray, Reference Belecky and Gray2020), suggest the species is rare in the country. The IUCN Red List notes the species is possibly extinct in Vietnam (Kamler et al., Reference Kamler, Songsasen, Jenks, Srivathsa, Sheng and Kunkel2015), but here we provide a new camera-trap record of the dhole. This is the first confirmed record of the species in the country in > 20 years despite intensive camera-trapping efforts.

During November 2023–March 2024, we conducted systematic camera-trapping in Pu Hoat Nature Reserve, in Nghe An Province, north-central Vietnam. The c. 35,000 ha Pu Hoat has elevations of 200–2,450 m and is bordered to the west by Lao PDR. We spaced camera stations c. 2.5 km apart, in a grid, with two camera traps per station (Reconyx HP2W, Reconyx, USA, and Covert Illuminator, UOVision, China), with units facing different directions. In total, we set 45 camera-trap stations and retrieved 37 (i.e. eight were lost or stolen), resulting in 6,084 camera-trap nights.

On 31 December 2023, we recorded a single dhole (Plate 1). Because domestic dogs are commonly used for hunting in Vietnam (Newton et al., Reference Newton, Van Thai, Roberton and Bell2008), we sent the photo to four independent biologists familiar with the species, all of whom confirmed the identification. The individual appears to be a mature adult. The photograph was taken at 1,590 m altitude, in wet evergreen forest, c. 4.3 km from the border with Lao PDR. During the installation of the cameras in this location, the team had observed canid prints at the site but presumed they were of a domestic dog.

This is, to our knowledge, the first verified record of the dhole in the wild in Vietnam in > 20 years. Hoffman et al. (Reference Hoffmann, Abramov, Duc, Long, Nguyen and Son2019) traced two other verified records (one in Pu Mat National Park, Nghe An Province, in 1999, and one in Yok Don National Park, Dak Lak Province, in 2003), and reported an unconfirmed sighting in Ninh Thuan Province in 2014.

Although we cannot draw definitive conclusions about the status of the dhole in Pu Hoat from a single record, we offer two possibilities. Firstly, there could be an extant population in the protected area, but given we only recorded a single individual, any population would likely be small. Secondly, the individual could be a vagrant that entered the protected area from a nearby forest in Vietnam or Lao PDR. Although there is limited information on dhole dispersal distance, based on body size, it is likely to be at least 30 km (Rodrigues et al., Reference Rodrigues, Srivathsa and Vasudev2022) but could be greater (Cancellare et al., Reference Cancellare, Kachel, Kubanychbekov, Kulenbekov, Pilgrim, McCarthy and Weckworth2022). There are several forest areas surrounding Pu Hoat, and it is possible the individual we recorded travelled from one of these sites. The nearest confirmed record of dholes is in the Nam Et Phou Loey protected area in Lao PDR (Rasphone et al., Reference Rasphone, Kéry, Kamler and Macdonald2019), c. 120 km from Pu Hoat.

This new dhole record should be considered within the context of the overall decline of the species across Vietnam. In addition to our study, during 2014–2024 there have been at least 49 large-scale camera-trapping surveys across the country, mostly using a similar landscape-scale systematic design (Tilker et al., Reference Tilker, Abrams, Nguyen, Hörig, Axtner and Louvrier2020; Nguyen et al., Reference Nguyen, Wilting, Niedballa, Nguyen, Rawson and Nguyen2022; Nguyen et al., Reference Nguyen, Tilker, Le, Niedballa, Pflumm and Pham2024), comprising a total of 3,231 camera traps in 1,657 stations across 31 study sites, totalling 269,524 camera-trap nights (Fig. 1). Seven of these sites were surveyed multiple times. Despite this effort, no dholes were recorded.

Fig. 1 Camera-trap surveys across Vietnam during 2014–2024 (Tilker et al., Reference Tilker, Abrams, Nguyen, Hörig, Axtner and Louvrier2020; Nguyen et al., Reference Nguyen, Wilting, Niedballa, Nguyen, Rawson and Nguyen2022; Nguyen et al., Reference Nguyen, Tilker, Le, Niedballa, Pflumm and Pham2024). The new dhole record (Plate 1) is from Pu Hoat Nature Reserve (labelled 4, in northern Vietnam). Repeated station refers to stations that were surveyed more than once over different surveys. NP, National Park; NR, Nature Reserve; PF, Protection Forest. (Readers of the printed journal are referred to the online article for a colour version of this figure.)

Plate 1 Camera-trap photograph of a dhole Cuon alpinus in Pu Hoat Nature Reserve, Nghe An province, north-central Vietnam, on 31 December 2023.

The failure of these extensive surveys to record the dhole indicates the species is either present at a very low density or is extirpated from most of Vietnam. Given the scale of these surveys, we believe the latter is most likely. Other recent studies have also concluded that although Vietnam has suitable habitat for the species, the dhole is either extirpated or functionally extinct (Kao et al., Reference Kao, Songsasen, Ferraz and Traylor-Holzer2020; Tananantayot et al., Reference Tananantayot, Agger, Ash, Aung, Baker-Whatton and Bisi2022). Vietnam is at the epicenter of the so-called Southeast Asian snaring crisis, with commercial snaring occurring across its protected area network (Belecky & Gray, Reference Belecky and Gray2020). Large, wide-ranging carnivores that live at naturally low densities are especially susceptible to snaring (Rasphone et al., Reference Rasphone, Kéry, Kamler and Macdonald2019), and it is unlikely the dhole could persist despite the high poaching levels in Vietnam. Moreover, snaring has reduced ground-dwelling mammal populations across Vietnam, and the depleted prey base has probably also contributed to the decline of the dhole (Wolf & Ripple, Reference Wolf and Ripple2016).

This decline has long-term implications for Vietnam’s forest ecosystems. The removal of top predators can unbalance complex food webs and lead to altered ecosystems states (Ripple & Beschta, Reference Ripple and Beschta2004; Letnic et al., Reference Letnic, Ritchie and Dickman2012; She et al., Reference She, Gu, Holyoak, Yan, Qi and Wan2023). Although trophic cascade effects in Vietnam may not be seen for decades, it is likely that without one of its apex predators, these forests will transition to a more impoverished ecological state.

Natural recovery of the dhole in Vietnam is unlikely. The species could recolonize through natural dispersal from Lao PDR, Cambodia or China. However, dholes have also experienced severe declines in these countries (Tananantayot et al., Reference Tananantayot, Agger, Ash, Aung, Baker-Whatton and Bisi2022), and it is unlikely there are source populations in areas adjacent to Vietnam (Kamler et al., Reference Kamler, Songsasen, Jenks, Srivathsa, Sheng and Kunkel2015). One exception may be the forests of Virachey National Park in northeastern Cambodia, where dhole populations have been confirmed (Pin et al., Reference Pin, Kamler, Toem, Lay, Vorn, Kim and Macdonald2022), and that has been identified as a stronghold for the species in the region (Tananantayot et al., Reference Tananantayot, Agger, Ash, Aung, Baker-Whatton and Bisi2022). However, any dholes dispersing into Vietnam would encounter high snaring levels and a low prey base, impeding establishment and persistence (Tilker et al., Reference Tilker, Niedballa, Viet, Abrams, Marescot and Wilkinson2024). Nevertheless, the return of the grey wolf Canis lupus to Europe shows that canid populations can potentially recover when hunting levels decrease (Chapron et al., Reference Chapron, Kaczensky, Linnell, Von Arx, Huber and Andrén2014). Reintroduction could provide an alternative to natural recovery, but would require a decrease in snaring and recovery of prey. Both natural recovery and reintroduction could only succeed in large areas of forest adequately protected from snaring, which would require a holistic approach involving improved patrolling, reduced demand for wildlife products, education and outreach, and stronger community guardianship (Gray et al., Reference Gray, Belecky, O’Kelly, Rao, Roberts and Tilker2021; Viollaz & Rizzolo, Reference Viollaz and Rizzolo2022; Tilker et al., Reference Tilker, Niedballa, Viet, Abrams, Marescot and Wilkinson2024). If dhole populations were to recover in Vietnam, it would also be critical to communicate the importance of the species, to advance social acceptance (Bruskotter & Wilson, Reference Bruskotter and Wilson2014) and ensure that appropriate human–wildlife coexistence measures are in place (Nyhus, Reference Nyhus2016).