Hostname: page-component-76d6cb85b7-rxvq6 Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2026-07-16T03:36:52.384Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Antioxidants and fatty acids in the amelioration of rheumatoid arthritis and related disorders

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  09 March 2007

L. Gail Darlington  and
Trevor W. Stone
L. Gail Darlington*
Affiliation:
Epsom General Hospital, Dorking Rd., Epsom, Surrey KT18 7EG, UK
Trevor W. Stone
Affiliation:
Institute of Biomedical and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow G12 8QQ, UK
*
*Corresponding author: Dr L. G. Darlington, fax +44 01372 735 261 email gdarlington@sthelier.sghms.ac.uk
Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Core share and HTML view are not available for this content. However, as you have access to this content, a full PDF is available via the 'Save PDF' action button.

The generation of reactive oxygen species (free radicals) is an important factor in the development and maintenance of rheumatoid arthritis in humans and animal models. One source of free radicals is nitric oxide produced within the synoviocytes and chondrocytes and giving rise to the highly toxic radical peroxynitrite. Several cytokines, including tumour necrosis factor-α (TNFα) are involved in the formation of free radicals, partly by increasing the activity of nitric oxide synthase. Indeed, nitric oxide may mediate some of the deleterious effects of cytokines on bone resorption. Aspirin, tetracyclines, steroids and methotrexate can suppress nitric oxide synthase. Dietary antioxidants include ascorbate and the tocopherols and beneficial effects of high doses have been reported especially in osteoarthritis. There is also evidence for beneficial effects of β-carotene and selenium, the latter being a component of the antioxidant enzyme glutathione peroxidase. The polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) include the n-3 compounds, some of which are precursors of eicosanoid synthesis, and the n-6 group which can increase formation of the pro-inflammatory cytokines TNFα and interleukin-6, and of reactive oxygen species. Some prostaglandins, however, suppress cytokine formation, so that n-3 PUFA often oppose the inflammatory effects of some n-6-PUFA. γ-linolenic acid (GLA) is a precursor of prostaglandin E1, a fact which may account for its reported ability to ameliorate arthritic symptoms. Fish oil supplements, rich in n-3 PUFA such as eicosapentaenoic acid have been claimed as beneficial in rheumatoid arthritis, possibly by suppression of the immune system and its cytokine repertoire. Some other oils of marine origin (e.g. from the green-lipped mussel) and a range of vegetable oils (e.g. olive oil and evening primrose oil) have indirect anti-inflammatory actions, probably mediated via prostaglandin E1. Overall, there is a growing scientific rationale for the use of dietary supplements as adjuncts in the treatment of inflammatory disorders such as rheumatoid arthritis and osteoarthritis.

Keywords

ArthritisOilsAntioxidantsFatty acidsFree radicals

Information

Type
Review article
Information
British Journal of Nutrition , Volume 85 , Issue 3 , March 2001 , pp. 251 - 269
Copyright
Copyright © The Nutrition Society 2001

References

Aeseth, J, Haugen, M & Forre, O (1998) Rheumatoid arthritis and metal compounds – Perspectives on the role of oxygen radical detoxification Analyst 123, 3–6.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Aeseth, J, Munthe, E, FØrre, Ø & Steinnes, E (1978) Trace elements in serum and urine of patients with rheumatoid arthritis. Scandinavian Journal of Rheumatology 7, 237–240.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Amin, AR & Abramson, SB (1998) The role of nitric oxide in articular cartilage breakdown in osteoarthritis. Current Opinion in Rheumatology 10, 263–268.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Amin, AR, Attur, MG, Thakker, GD, Patel, PD, Vyas, PR, Patel, RN & Patel, IR (1996) A novel mechanism of action of tetracyclines: Effects on nitric oxide synthases Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the USA 93, 14014–14019.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Araujo, V, Arnal, C, Boronat, M, Ruiz, E & Dominguez, C (1998) Oxidant–antioxidant imbalance in blood of children with juvenile rheumatoid arthritis. Biofactors 8, 155–159.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Aruoma, OI & Halliwell, B (1998) The iron-binding and hydroxyl radical scavenging action of anti-inflammatory drugs Xenobiotica 18, 459–470.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Asano, M, Nakajima, T, Hazama, H, Iwasawa, K, Tomaru, T, Omata, M, Soma, M, Asakura, Y, Mizutani, M, Suzuki, S, Yamashita, K & Okuda, Y (1998) Influence of cellular incorporation of n-3 eicosapentaenoic acid on intracellular Ca2+ concentration and membrane potential in vascular smooth muscle cells. Atherosclerosis 138, 117–127.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Attur, MG, Patel, IR, Patel, RN, Abramson, SB & Amin, AR (1998) Autocrine production of IL-1beta by human osteoarthritis-affected cartilage and differential regulation of endogenous nitric oxide, IL-6, prostaglandin E2, and IL-8. Proceedings of the Association of American Physicians 110, 65–72.Google Scholar
Baker, DG, Krakauer, KA, Tate, G, Laposata, M & Zurier, RB (1989) Suppression of human synovial cell proliferation by dihomo-gamma-linolenic acid Arthritis and Rheumatism 32, 1273–1281.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Baldie, G, Kaimakamis, D & Rotondo, D (1993) Fatty acid modulation of cytokine release from human monocytic cells. Biochimica Biophysica Acta – Molecular Cell Research 1179, 125–133.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Barnes, PJ (1997) Nuclear factor-kappaB. International Journal of Biochemistry Cell Biology 29, 867–870.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Barnes, PJ & Adcock, I (1993) Anti-inflammatory actions of steroids: molecular mechanisms. Trends in Pharmacological Science 14, 436–441.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Beckman, JS, Chen, J, Ischiropoulos, H & Crow, JP (1994) Oxidative chemistry of peroxynitrite. Methods in Enzymology 233, 229–240.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Begin, ME, Ells, G & Horrobin, DF (1988) Polyunsaturated fatty acid-induced cytotoxicity against tumour cells and its relationship to lipid peroxidation. Journal of the National Cancer Institute 80, 188–194.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Belch, JJF, Ansell, D, Madhok, R, O'Dowd, A & Sturrock, RD (1988) Effects of altering dietary essential fatty acids on requirements for non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs in patients with rheumatoid arthritis: a double-blind placebo-controlled study. Annals of the Rheumatic Diseases 47, 96–104.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Benhamou, PY, Mullen, Y, Clare-Salzler, M, Sangkharat, A, Benhamou, C, Shevlin, L & Go, VLW (1995) Essential fatty acid deficiency prevents autoimmune diabetes in non-obese diabetic mice through a positive impact on antigenpresenting cells and Th2 lymphocytes Pancreas 11, 26–37.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Billiar, TR, Bankey, PE, Svingen, BA, Curran, RD, West, MA, Holman, RT, Simmons, RL & Cerra, FB (1988) Fatty acid intake and Kupffer cell function: fish oil alters eicosanoid and monokine production to endotoxin stimulation. Surgery 104, 343–349.Google ScholarPubMed
Blake, DR, Hall, ND, Treby, DA, Halliwell, B & Gutteridge, JMC (1981) Protection against superoxide and hydrogen peroxide in synovial fluid from rheumatoid patients. Clinical Science 61, 483–486.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Blake, DR, Merry, P, Unsworth, J, Kidd, BL, Outwhwaite, JM, Ballard, R, Morris, CJ, Gray, L & Lunec, J (1989) Hypoxic-reperfusion injury in the inflamed human joint. Lancet 1, 289–293.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Blankenhorn, G (1986) Clinical effectiveness of Spondyvit (vitamin E) on activated arthroses. A multicenter, placebo-controlled double-blind study. Zeitschrift für Orthopadie 124, 340–343.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bonaa, K (1989) Epidemiological and intervention studies on the effect of marine polyunsaturated fatty acids on blood pressure. Journal of Internal Medicine Supplement 225, 105–110.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bonner, SA, Rotondo, D & Davidson, J (1997) Eicosapentaenoic acid supplementation modulates the immune responsiveness of human blood. Prostaglandins, Leukotrienes and Essential Fatty Acids 57, 127–130.Google Scholar
Brown-Galatola, CH & Hall, ND (1992) Impaired suppressor cell activity due to surface sulphydryl oxidation in rheumatoid arthritis. British Journal of Rheumatology 31, 599–603.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Brusch, CA & Johnson, ET (1959) A new dietary regimen for arthritis. Value of cod liver oil on a fasting stomach. Journal of the National Medical Association 51, 266–270.Google ScholarPubMed
Brzeski, M, Madhok, R & Capell, HA (1991) Evening primrose oil in patients with rheumatoid arthritis and side effects of non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs. British Journal of Rheumatology 30, 370–372.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Calder, PC (1997) n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids and cytokine production in health and disease. Annals of Nutrition and Metabolism 41, 203–234.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Callegari, PE & Zurier, RB (1991) Botanical lipids: Potential role in modulation of immunologic responses and inflammatory reactions. Rheumatic Disease Clinics of North America 17, 415–425.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Calvert, GR, Thompson, KSJ, Martin, KF & Heal, DJ (1999) Docosahexaenoic acid affects glutamate-induced cell death in primary cortical cultures. British Journal of Pharmacology 126, 252.Google Scholar
Cannon, GW, Openshaw, SJ, Hibbs, JB, Hodial, JR, Huecksteadt, TP & Griffiths, MM (1996) Nitric oxide production during adjuvant-induced and collagen-induced arthritis. Arthritis and Rheumatism 39, 1677–1684.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cantrill, RC, Patterson, PP, Ells, GW & Horrobin, DF (1996) Exogenous α-linolenic acid alters hormone stimulated cyclic AMP levels in U937 cells. Cancer Letters 100, 17–21.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Caughey, GE, Mantzioris, E, Gibson, RA, Cleland, LG & James, MJ (1996) The effect on human tumor necrosis factor and interleukin-1β production of diets enriched in n-3 fatty acids from vegetable oil or fish oil. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 63, 116–122.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Chapkin, RS, Akoh, CC & Lewis, RE (1992) Dietary fish oil modulation of in vivo peritoneal macrophage leukotriene production and phagocytosis. Journal of Nutritional Biochemist 3, 599–604.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chapman, ML, Rubin, BR & Gracy, RW (1989) Increased carbonyl content of proteins in synovial patients with rheumatoid arthritis. Journal of Rheumatology 16, 15–18.Google ScholarPubMed
Chaudière, J, Wilhelmsen, EC & Tappel, AL (1984) Mechanism of selenium-glutathione peroxidase and its inhibition by mercaptocarboxylic acids and other mercaptans. Journal of Biological Chemistry 259, 1043–1050.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Chaudière, J & Ferrari-Iliou, R (1999) Intracellular antioxidants: From chemical to biochemical mechanisms. Food and Chemical Toxicology 37, 949–962.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Chen, F, Castranova, V, Shi, X & Demers, LM (1999) New insights into the role of nuclear factor-kappaB, a ubiquitous transcription factor in the initiation of diseases. Clinical Chemistry 45, 7–17.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cheneval, D, Ramage, P, Kastelic, T, Szelestenyi, T, Niggli, H, Hemmig, R, Bachmann, M & Mackenzie, A (1998) Increased mature interleukin-1beta (IL-1beta) secretion from THP-1 cells induced by nigericin is a result of activation of p45 IL-1beta-converting enzyme processing. Journal of Biological Chemistry 273, 17846–17851.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Clark, WF, Parbtani, A, Naylor, CD, Levinton, CM, Muirhead, N, Spanner, E, Huff, MW, Philbrick, DJ & Holub, BJ (1993) Fish oil in lupus nephritis: clinical findings and methodological implications. Kidney International 44, 75–86.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cleland, LG (1991) Diet and Arthritis. Current Therapeutics 32, 51–56.Google Scholar
Cleland, LG & James, MJ (1997) Rheumatoid arthritis and the balance of dietary. n-6 and n-3 essential fatty acids British Journal of Rheumatology 36, 513–514.Google ScholarPubMed
Cleland, LG, French, JK, Betts, WH, Murphy, GA & Elliott, MJ (1988) Clinical and biochemical effects of dietary fish oil supplements in rheumatoid arthritis. Journal of Rheumatology 15, 1471–1475.Google ScholarPubMed
Comb, GF & Comb, SB (1986) Biochemical functions of selenium. The Role of Selenium in Nutrition New York: Academic Press, pp. 205–263.Google Scholar
Connor, JR, Manning, PT, Settle, SL, Moore, WM, Jerome, GM, Webber, RK, Siong Tjoeng, F & Currie, MG (1995) Supression of adjuvant-induced arthritis by selective inhibition of inducible nitric oxide synthase. European Journal of Pharmacology 273, 15–24.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cooper, B, Creeth, JM & Donald, ASR (1985) Studies of the limited degradation of mucus glycoproteins – The mechanism of the peroxide reaction. Biochemistry Journal 228, 615–626.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Couch, RAF, Ormrod, DJ, Miller, TE & Watkins, WB (1982) Anti-inflammatory activity in fractionated extracts of the green-lipped mussel. New Zealand Medical Journal 95, 803–806.Google ScholarPubMed
Crosby, AJ, Wahle, KWJ & Duthie, GG (1996) Modulation of glutathione peroxidase activity in human vascular endothelial cells by fatty acids and the cytokine interleukin-1. Biochemica et Biophysica Acta – Lipids and Lipid Metabolism 1303, 187–192.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Crouch, SPM, Crocker, IP & Fletcher, J (1995) The effect of pregnancy on polymorphonuclear leukocyte function. Journal of Immunology 155, 5436–5443.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Darlington,, LG (1994) Fish oils: what is the current view on their benefits in various diseases? Medical Dialogue no. 429.Google Scholar
Das, UN (1994) Beneficial effect of eicosapentaenoic and docosahexaenoic acids in the management of systemic lupus erythematosus and its relationship to the cytokine network. Prostaglandins, Leukotrienes and Essential Fatty acids 51, 207–213.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Davies, JMS, Horwitz, DA & Davies, KJA (1993) Potential roles of hypochlorous acid and N-chloroamines in collagen breakdown by phagocyte cells in synovitis. Free Radical Biological Medicine 15, 637–643.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Deakin, AM, Payne, AN & Blackwell, GJ (1994) Role of potassium channels in the regulation of cytokine release from THP-1 cells. Agents and Actions 41(Suppl. II), C188-C190.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Devchand, PR, Keller, H, Peters, JM, Vazquez, M, Gonzalez, FJ & Wahli, W (1996) The PPARα-leukotriene B4 pathway to inflammation control. Nature 384, 39–44.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Doumerg, C (1969) Etude clinique experimental de l'alpha-tocopheryle-quinone en rheumatologie et en reeducation. Therapeutique 43, 676–678.Google Scholar
Dowling, EJ, Winrow, VR, Merry, P & Blake, DR (1990) Oxidants, joint inflammation and anti-inflammatory strategies. Advances in Experimental Medicine and Biology 264, 463–474.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Endres, S, Ghorbani, R, Kelley, VE, Georgilis, K, Lonnemann, G, Van, der, Meer, JM, Cannon, JG, Rogers, TS, Klempner, MS, Weber, PC, Schaefer, EJ, Wolff, SM & Dinarello, CA (1989) The effect of dietary supplementation with. n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids on the synthesis of interleukin-1 and tumor necrosis factor by mononuclear cells New England Journal of Medicine 320, 265–271.Google ScholarPubMed
Endres, S, Meydani, SN, Ghorbani, R, Schindler, R & Dinarello, CA (1993) Dietary supplementation with n-3 fatty acids suppresses interleukin-2 production and mononuclear cell proliferation Journal of Leukocyte Biology 54, 599–603.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Espersen, GT, Grunnet, N, Lervang, HH, Nielsen, GL, Thomsen, BS & Faarvang, KL (1992) Decreased interleukin-1 beta levels in plasma from rheumatoid arthritis patients after dietary supplementation with. n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids Clinical Rheumatology 11, 393–395.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fairney, A, Patel, KV, Fish, DE & Seifert, MH (1988) Vitamin A in osteo- and rheumatoid arthritis. British Journal of Rheumatology 27, 329–330.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Farrell, AJ, Blake, DR, Palmer, RMJ & Moncada, S (1992) Increased concentrations of nitrite in synovial fluid and serum samples suggest increased nitric oxide synthesis in rheumatic diseases. Annals of the Rheumatic Diseases 51, 1219–1222.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fletcher, DS, Widmer, WR, Luell, S, Christen, A, Orevillo, C, Shah, S & Visco, D (1998) Therapeutic administration of a selective inhibitory of nitric oxide synthase does not ameliorate the chronic inflammation and tissue damage associated with adjuvant-induced arthritis in rats. Journal of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics 284, 714–721.Google Scholar
Gantner, F, Uhlig, S & Wendel, A (1995) Quinine inhibits release of tumor necrosis factor, apoptosis, necrosis and mortality in a murine model of septic liver failure. European Journal of Pharmacology 294, 353–355.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gazso, A, Kaliman, J, Horrobin, DF & Sinzinger, H (1989) Effects of omega-3 fatty acids on the prostaglandin system in healthy probands. Wiener Klinische Wochenschrift 101, 283–288.Google ScholarPubMed
German, JB, Lokesh, B & Kinsella, JE (1988) The effect of dietary fish oils on eicosanoid biosynthesis in peritoneal macrophages is influenced by both dietary. N-6 polyunsaturated fats and total dietary fat Prostaglandins Leukotrienes and Essential Fatty Acids 34, 37–45.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gibson, RG, Gibson, SLM, Conway, V & Chappell, D (1980) Perna canaliculus in the treatment of arthritis. Practitioner 224, 955–960.Google ScholarPubMed
Godfrey, DG, Stimson, WH, Watson, J, Belch, JF & Sturrock, RD (1986) Effects of dietary supplementation on autoimmunity in the MRL/1 per mouse: a preliminary investigation. Annals of Rheumatic Diseases 45, 1019–1024.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Goodnight, SH, Harris, WS & Connor, WE (1981) The effects of dietary omega3 fatty acids on platelet composition and function in man: A prospective, controlled study. Blood 58, 880–885.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Grabowski, PS, England, AJ, Dykhuizen, R, Copland, M, Benjamin, N & Reid, DM (1996) Elevated nitric oxide production in rheumatoid arthritis: Detection using the fasting urinary nitrate: creatinine ratio. Arthritis and Rheumatism 39, 643–647.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Grabowski, PS, MacPherson, H & Ralston, SH (1996) Nitric oxide production in cells derived from the human joint. British Journal of Rheumatology 35, 207–212.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Grabowski, PS, Wright, PK, Van'T Hof, RJ, Helfrich, MH, Ohshima, H & Ralston, SH (1997) Immunolocalization of inducible nitric oxide synthase in synovium and cartilage in rheumatoid arthritis and osteoarthritis. British Journal of Rheumatology 36, 651–655.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Greenwald, RA, Moak, SA, Ramamurthy, NS & Golub, LM (1992) Tetracyclines suppress matrix metalloproteinase activity in adjuvant arthritis and in combination with flurbiprofen, ameliorate bone damage. Journal of Rheumatology 19, 927–938.Google ScholarPubMed
Grimble, RF (1998) Modification of inflammatory aspects of immune function by nutrients. Nutrition Research 18, 1297–1317.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Grootveld, M, Henderson, EB, Farrell, A, Blake, DR, Parkes, HG & Haycock, P (1991) Oxidative damage to hyaluronate and glucose in synovial fluid during exercise of the inflamed rhematoid joint. Detection of abnormal low-molecular-mass metabolites by proton-n.m.r. spectroscopy. Biochemistry Journal 273, 459–467.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Guillemin, F, Briancon, S, Klein, JM, Sauleau, E & Pourel, J (1994) Low incidence of rheumatoid arthritis in France. Scandinavian Journal of Rheumatology 23, 264–268.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gutteridge, JMC (1987) Bleomycin-detectable iron in knee-joint synovial fluid from arthritic patients and its relationship to the extra-cellular antioxidant activities of caeruloplasmin, transferrin and lactoferrin. Biochemistry Journal 245, 415–421.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gutteridge, JMC, Rowley, DA & Halliwell, B (1982) Superoxide-dependent formation of hydroxyl radicals and lipid peroxidation in the presence of iron salts. Detection of ‘catalytic’ iron and anti-oxidant activity in extracellular fluids. Biochemistry Journal 206, 605–609.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hansen, TM, Lerche, A, Kassio, V, Lorenzen, E & SØndergaard, J (1983) Treatment of rheumatoid arthritis with prostaglandin E precursors cis-linoleic acid and gamma-linolenic acid. Scandinavian Journal of Rheumatology 12, 85–88.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hardardottir, I & Kinsella, JE (1992) Increasing the dietary (n-3) to (n-6) polyunsaturated fatty acid ratio increases tumor necrosis factor production by murine resident peritoneal macrophages without an effect on elicited peritoneal macrophages. Journal of Nutrition 122, 1942–1951.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hayashi, N, Tashiro, T, Yamamori, H, Takagi, K, Morishima, Y, Otsubo, Y, Sugiura, T, Furukawa, K, Nitta, H, Nakajima, N, Suzuki, N & Ito, I (1998) Effects of intravenous omega-3 and omega-6 fat emulsion on cytokine production and delayed type hypersensitivity in burned rats receiving total parenteral nutrition. Japan Journal of Parenteral and Enteral Nutrition 22, 363–367.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hayashi, T, Abe, E, Yamate, T, Taguchi, Y & Jasin, HE (1997) Nitric oxide production by superficial and deep articular chondrocytes. Arthritis and Rheumatism 40, 261–269.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hazama, H, Nakajima, T, Asano, M, Iwasawa, K, Morita, T, Igarashi, K, Nagata, T, Horiuchi, T, Suzuki, J, Soma, M & Okuda, Y (1998) Omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids-modulation of voltage-dependent L-type Ca2+ current in guinea-pig tracheal smooth muscle cells. European Journal of Pharmacology 355, 257–266.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Heliovaara, M, Knekt, P, Aho, K, Aaran, R-K, Alfthan, G & Aromaa, A (1994) Serum antioxidants and risk of rheumatoid arthritis. Annals of the Rheumatic Diseases 53, 51–53.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Henderson, E, Grootveld, M & Blake, D (1991) Origins of free radical-mediated damage in the inflamed joint. European Journal of Rheumatology and Inflammation 11, 27–35.Google Scholar
Herzberg, GR The mechanism of serum triacylglycerol lowering by dietary fish oil.[Chandra, RK, editor]. In Health Effects and Fish Oils (1989), pp. 143–158ARTS St. John's, Canada:Biomedical Publishers.Google Scholar
Horrobin, DF (1991) Is the main problem in free radical damage caused by radiation, oxygen and other toxins, the loss of membrane essential fatty acids rather than the accumulation of toxic materials?. Medical Hypotheses 35, 23–26.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Howie, A, Huang, YS, Rozee, L & Horrobin, DF (1993) Effects of saturated fatty acids on n6-fatty acid metabolism in cultured human monocyte-like cells (U937). Molecular and Cellular Biochemistry 122, 49–58.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hubbard, NE, Somers, SD & Erickson, KL (1991) Effect of dietary fish oil on development and selected functions of murine inflammatory macrophages. Journal of Leukocyte Biology 49, 592–598.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hughes, DA & Pinder, AC (1997) n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids modulate the expression of functionally associated molecules on human monocytes and inhibit antigen presentation in vitro. Clinical and Experimental Immunology 110, 516–523.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hughes, DA, Pinder, AC, Piper, Z & Lund, EK (1995) N-3 poly-unsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) modulate the expression of functionally associated molecules on human monocytes. Transactions of the Biochemical Society 23, 303S.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hughes, DA, Wright, AJ, Finglas, PM, Peerless, AC, Bailey, AL, Astley, SB, Pinder, AC & Southon, S (1997) The effect of beta-carotene supplementation on the immune function of blood monocytes from healthy male nonsmokers. Journal of Laboratory and Clinical Medicine 129, 309–317.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hukkanen, M, Hughes, FJ, Buttery, LDK, Gross, SS, Evans, TJ, Seddon, S, Riveros–Moreno, V, MacIntyre, I & Polak, JM (1995) Cytokine-stimulated expression of inducible nitric oxide synthase by mouse, rat and human osteoblast-like cells and its functional role in osteoblast metabolic activity. Endocrinology 136, 5445–5453.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Huskisson, EC, Scott, J & Bryans, R (1981) Seatone is ineffective in rheumatoid arthritis. British Medical Journal 282, 1358–1359.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Jantti, J, Nikkari, T, Solakivi, T, Vapaatalo, H & Isomäki, H (1989) Evening primrose oil in rheumatoid arthritis: changes in serum lipids and fatty acids. Annals of Rheumatic Diseases 48, 124–127.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Jeng, K-CG, Yang, C-S, Sim, W-Y, Tsai, Y-S, Liao, W-J & Kuo, J-S (1996) Supplementation with vitamins C and E enhances cytokine production by peripheral blood mononuclear cells in healthy adults. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 64, 960–965.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jiang, WG, Hiscox, S, Horrobin, DF, Hallett, MB, Mansel, RE & Puntis, MC (1995) Expression of catenins in human cancer cells and its regulation by. n6-polyunsaturated fatty acids Anticancer Research 15, 2569–2573.Google ScholarPubMed
Jiang, WG, Hiscox, S, Hallett, MB, Scott, C, Horrobin, DF & Puntis, MC (1995) Inhibition of hepatocyte growth factor induced motility and in vitro invasion of human colon cancer cells by γ-linolenic acid. British Journal of Cancer 71, 744–752.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Jiang, WG, Bryce, RP, Horrobin, DF & Mansel, RE (1998) Regulation of tight junction permeability and occludin expression by polyunsaturated fatty acids. Biochemical and Biophysical Research Communications 244, 414–420.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Karsten, S, Schafer, C & Schauder, P (1994) Cytokine production and DNA synthesis by human peripheral lymphocytes in response to palmitic, stearic, oleic and linoleic acid. Journal of Cellular Physiology 161, 15–22.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kasama, T, Kobayashi, K, Sekine, F, Negishi, M, Ide, H, Takahashi, T & Niwa, Y (1988) Follow-up study of lipid peroxides, superoxide dismutase and glutathione peroxidase in the synovial membrane, serum and liver of young and old mice with collagen-induced arthritis. Life Sciences 43, 1887–1896.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kaur, H & Halliwell, B (1994) Evidence for nitric oxide-mediated oxidative damage in chronic inflammation. Nitrotyrosine in serum and synovial fluid from rheumatoid patients. FEBS Letters 350, 9–12.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kaur, H, Edmonds, SE, Blake, DR & Halliwell, B (1996) Hydroxyl radical generation by rheumatoid blood and knee joint synovial fluid. Annals of Rheumatic Diseases 55, 915–920.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Khalfoun, B, Thibault, F, Watier, H, Bardos, P & Lebranchu, Y (1997) Docosahexaenoic and eicosapentaenoic acids inhibit in vitro human endothelial cell production of interleukin-6. Advances in Experimental Medicine and Biology 400, 589–597.Google Scholar
Knudsen, PJ, Dinarello, CA & Strom, TB (1986) Prostaglandins posttranscriptionally inhibit monocyte expression of interleukin 1 activity by increasing intracellular cyclic adenosine monophosphate. Journal of Immunology 137, 3189–3194.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kremer, JM, Michalek, AV & Lininger, L (1985) Effects of manipulation of dietary fatty acids on clinical manefestations of rheumatoid arthritis. Lancet I, 184–187.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kremer, J, Jubiz, W & Michalek, A (1987) Fish oil fatty acid supplementation in active rheumatoid arthritis. Annals of Internal Medicine 106, 497–503.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kremer, JM, Lawrence, DA, Jubiz, W, DiGiacomo, R, Rynes, R, Bartholomew, LE & Sherman, M (1990) Dietary fish oil and olive oil supplementation in patients with rheumatoid arthritis. Clinical and immunologic effects. Arthritis and Rheum. 33, 810–820.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kristensen, SD, Schmidt, EB & Dyerberg, J (1989) Dietary supplementation with n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids and human platelet function: a review with particular emphasis on implications for cardiovascular disease. Journal of Internal Medicine Supplement 225, 141–150.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kunkel, SL, Ogawa, H, Ward, PA & Zurier, RB (1981) Suppression of chronic inflammation by evening primrose oil. Progression Lipid Research 20, 885–888.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kunkel, SL, Spengler, M, May, MA, Spengler, R, Larrick, J & Remick, D (1988) Prostaglandin E2 regulates macrophage-derived tumor necrosis factor gene expression. Journal of Biological Chemistry 263, 5380–5384.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kuratko, CN & Constante, BJ (1998) Linoleic acid and TNFα increase manganese SOD activity in intestinal cells. Cancer Letters 130, 191–196.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kwon, G, Hill, JR, Corbett, JA & McDaniel, ML (1997) Effects of aspirin on nitric oxide formation and de novo protein synthesis by RINm5F cells and rat islets. Molecular Pharmacology 52, 398–405.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lakatos, B & Szentmihalyi, K (1999) The antioxidant effect and clinical application of vitamin E. Lege Artis Medicine 9, 716–725.Google Scholar
Larkin, JG, Capell, HA & Sturrock, RD (1985) Seatone is rheumatoid arthritis: a six month placebo-controlled study. Annals of Rheumatic Diseases 44, 199–201.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ledson, MJ, Bucknall, RC & Edwards, SW (1992) Inhibition of neutrophil oxidant secretion by D-penicillamine: Scavenging of H2O2 and HOCl. Annals of the Rheumatic Diseases 51, 321–325.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Leslie, CA, Gonnerman, WA & Ullman, MD (1985) Dietary fish oil modulates, macrophage fatty acids and decreases arthritis susceptibility in mice. Journal of Experimental Medicine 162, 1336–1349.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Leventhal, LJ, Boyce, EG & Zurier, RB (1993) Treatment of rheumatoid arthritis with gammalinolenic acid. Annals of Internal Medicine 119, 867–873.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Li, Y, Ferrante, A, Poulos, A & Harvey, DP (1996) Neutrophil oxygen radical generation: synergistic responses to tumor necrosis factor and mono/polyunsaturated fatty acids. Journal of Clinical Investigation 97, 1605–1609.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Linos, A, Kaklamanis, E, Kontomerkos, A, Koumantaki, Y, Gazi, S, Vaiopoulos, G, Tsokos, GC & Kaklamanis, PH (1991) The effect of olive oil and fish oil consumption on rheumatoid arthritis: a case control study. Scandinavian Journal of Rheumatology 20, 419–426.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lokesh, BR, Hsieh, HL & Kinsella, JE (1986) Peritoneal macrophages from mice fed dietary (n-3) polyunsaturated fatty acids secrete low levels of prostaglandins. Journal of Nutrition 116, 2547–2552.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lokesh, BR, Sayers, TJ & Kinsella, JE (1990) Interleukin-1 and tumor necrosis factor synthesis by mouse peritoneal macrophages is enhanced by dietary n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids. Immunology Letters 23, 281–285.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Luostarinen, R & Saldeen, T (1996) Dietary fish oil decreases superoxide generation by human neutrophils: Relation to cyclooxygenase pathway and lysosomal enzyme release. Prostaglandins, Leukotrienes and Essential Fatty Acids 55, 167–172.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Luostarinen, R, Wallin, R & Saldeen, T (1997) Dietary (n-3) fatty acids increase superoxide dismutase activity and decrease thromboxane production in the rat heart. Nutrition Research 17, 163–175.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mancuso, C, Tringali, G, Grossman, A, Preziosi, P & Navarra, P (1998) The generation of nitric oxide and carbon monoxide produces opposite effects on the release of immunoreactive interleukin-1beta from the rat hypothalamus in vitro: Evidence for the involvement of different signaling pathways. Endocrinology 139, 1031–1037.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Manfield, L, Jang, D & Murrell, GAC (1996) Nitric oxide enhances cyclooxygenase activity in articular cartilage. Inflammation Research 45, 254–258.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
McAlindon, T & Felson, DT (1997) Nutrition risk factors for osteoarthritis. Annals of the Rheumatic Diseases 56, 397–402.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
McAlindon, TE, Jacques, P, Zhang, Y, Hannan, MT, Aliabadi, P, Weissman, B, Rush, D, Levy, D & Felson, DT (1996) Do antioxidant micronutrients protect against the development and progression of knee osteoarthritis?. Arthritis and Rheumatism 39, 648–656.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
McCartney-Francis, N, Allen, JB, Mixel, DE, Xie, Q-W & Nathan, CF (1993) Suppression of arthritis by an inhibitor of nitric oxide synthase. Journal of Experimental Medicine 178, 749–754.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
McCord, JM (1974) Free radicals and inflammation: protection of synovial fluid by superoxide dismutase. Science 185, 529–531.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Meade, CJ, Mertin, J, Sheena, J & Hunt, R (1978) Reduction by linoleic acid of the severity of experimental allergic encephalomyelitis in the guinea-pig. Journal of Neurological Science 35, 291–308.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Melchiorri, C, Meliconi, R, Frizziero, L, Silvestri, T, Pulsatelli, L, Mazzetti, I, Borzi, RM, Uguccioni, M & Facchini, A (1998) Enhanced and coordinated in vivo expression of inflammatory cytokines and nitric oxide synthase by chondrocytes from patients with osteoarthritis. Arthritis and Rheumatism 41, 2165–2174.3.0.CO;2-O>CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Merry, P, Grootveld, M, Lunec, J & Blake, DR (1991) Oxidative damage to lipids within the inflamed human joint provides evidence of radical-mediated hypoxic-reperfusion injury. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 53(Suppl. 1,), 362S-369S.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Meydani, M, Natiello, F, Goldin, B, Free, N, Woods, M, Schaefer, E, Blumberg, JB & Gorbach, SL (1991) Effect of long-term fish oil supplementation on vitamin E status and lipid peroxidation in women. Journal of Nutrition 121, 484–491.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Meydani, SN, Endres, S, Woods, MM, Goldin, BR, Soo, C, Morrill-Labrode, A, Dinarello, CA & Gorbach, SL (1991) Oral (n-3) fatty acid supplementation suppresses cytokine production and lymphocyte proliferation: Comparison between young and older women. Journal of Nutrition 121, 547–555.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Meydani, SN, Lichtenstein, AH, Cornwall, S, Meydani, M, Goldin, BR, Rasmussen, H, Dinarello, CA & Schaefer, EJ (1993) Immunologic effects of national cholesterol education panel step-2 diets with and without fish-derived N-3 fatty acid enrichment. Journal of Clinical Investigation 92, 105–113.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Miesel, R & Zuber, M (1993) Elevated levels of xanthine oxidase in serum of patients with inflammatory and autoimmune rheumatic diseases. Inflammation 17, 551–561.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Miesel, R, Zuber, M, Sanocka, D, Graetz, R & Kroeger, H (1994) Effects of allopurinol on in vivo suppression of arthritis in mice and ex vivo modulation of phagocytic production of oxygen radicals in whole human blood. Inflammation 18, 597–612.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Miesel, R, Kurpisz, M & Kroger, H (1995) Modulation of inflammatory arthritis by inhibition of poly(ADP ribose) polymerase. Inflammation 19, 379–387.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Miesel, R, Hartung, R & Kroeger, H (1996) Priming of NADPH oxidase by tumor necrosis factor alpha in patients with inflammatory and autoimmune rheumatic diseases. Inflammation 20, 427–438.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Miesel, R, Kurpisz, M & Kroger, H (1996) Suppression of inflammatory arthritis by simultaneous inhibition of nitric oxide synthase and NADPH oxidase. Free Radical Biology and Medicine 20, 75–81.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Miller, T & Wu, H (1984) In vivo evidence for prostaglandin inhibitory activity in New Zealand green-lipped mussel extract. New Zealand Medical Journal 97, 355–357.Google ScholarPubMed
Miller, T & Ormrod, D (1980) The anti-inflammatory activity of. Perna canaliculus (NZ green-lipped mussel) New Zealand Medical Journal 92, 187–193.Google ScholarPubMed
Miyasaka, N (1997) Nitric oxide production in rheumatoid arthritis. Japanese Journal of Rheumatology 7, 165–172.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Miyasaka, CK, Alves de Souza, JA, Pires de Melo, M, Curi, TCP, Lajolo, FM & Curi, R (1998) Fish oil given by gavage increases lymphocyte proliferation and production of hydrogen peroxide by rat macrophages. General Pharmacology 31, 37–41.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Miyasaka, CK, Alves de Souza, JA, Torres, RP, Filho, JM, Lajolo, FM & Curi, R (1998) Effect of the administration of fish oil by gavage on activities of antioxidant enzymes of rat lymphoid organs. General Pharmacology 30, 759–762.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Mohan, IK & Das, UN (1997) Oxidant stress, anti-oxidants and essential fatty acids in systemic lupus erythematosus. Prostaglandins, Leukotrienes and Essential Fatty Acids 56, 193–198.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Morel, Y & Baroiki, R (1998) Gene regulation by oxidative stress. Medicine/Sciences 14, 713–721.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Munthe, E, Aeseth, J & Jellum, E (1986) Trace elements & rheumatoid arthritis (RA)-pathogenic and therapeutic aspects. Acta Pharmacologica Toxicologica 59(Suppl. 1), 365–373.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Murrell, GAC, Dolan, MM, Jang, D, Szabo, C, Warren, RF & Hannafin, JA (1996) Nitric oxide: An important articular free radical. Journal of Bone and Joint Surgery 78, 265–274.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Murrell, GAC, Jang, D & Williams, RJ (1995) Nitric oxide activates metalloprotease enzymes in articular cartilage. Biochemical and Biophysical Research Communications 206, 15–21.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Nurcombe, HL, Bucknall, RC & Edwards, SW (1991) Neutrophils isolated from the synovial fluid of patients with rheumatoid arthritis: priming and activation in vivo. Annals of Rheumatic Diseases 50, 147–153.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Okada, M, Amamoto, T, Tomonaga, M, Kawachi, A, Yazawa, K, Mine, K & Fujiwara, M (1996) The chronic administration of docosahexaenoic acid reduces the spatial cognitive deficit following transient forebrain ischemia in rats. Neuroscience 71, 17–25.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Okusawa, S, Gelfand, JA, Ikejima, T, Connolly, RJ & Dinarello, CAI (1988) Interleukin 1 induces a shock-like state in rabbits. Synergism with tumor necrosis factor and the effect of cyclooxygenase inhibition. Journal of Clinical Investigation 81, 1162–1172.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Olee, T, Hashimoto, S, Quach, J & Lotz, M (1999) IL-18 is produced by articular chondrocytes and induces proinflammatory and catabolic responses. Journal of Immunology 162, 1096–1100.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Opmeer, FA, Adolfs, MJP & Bonta, IL (1984) Regulation of prostaglandin E2 receptors in vivo by dietary fatty acids in peritoneal macrophages from rats. Journal of Lipid Research 25, 262–268.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Palanki, MSS & Manning, AM (1999) Interleukin-2 inhibitors in autoimmune disease. Expert Opinion on Therapeutic Patents 9, 27–399.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Parnham, MJ & Graf, E (1987) Seleno-organic compounds and the therapy of hydroperoxide-linked pathological conditions. Biochemical Pharmacology 36, 3095–3102.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Perkins, DJ, St Clair, EW, Misukonis, MA & Weinberg, JB (1998) Reduction of NOS2 overexpression in rheumatoid arthritis patients treated with anti-tumour necrosis factor a monoclonal antibody (cA2). Arthritis and Rheumatism 41, 2205–2210.3.0.CO;2-Q>CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Perregaux, D & Gabel, CA (1994) Interleukin-1beta maturation and release in response to ATP and nigericin. Evidence that potassium depletion mediated by these agents is a necessary and common feature of their activity. Journal of Biological Chemistry 269, 15195–15203.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Perregaux, DG & Gabel, CA (1998) Human monocyte stimulus-coupled IL-1beta posttranslational processing: Modulation via monovalent cations. American Journal of Physiology 275, C1538-C1547.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Phillipson, BE, Rothrock, DW & Connor, WE (1985) Reduction of plasma lipids, lipoproteins, and apoproteins by dietary fish oils in patients with hypertriglyceridemia. New England Journal of Medicine 312, 1210–1216.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Phylactos, AC, Harbige, LS & Crawford, MA (1994) Essential fatty acids alter the activity of manganese-superoxide dismutase in rat heart. Lipids 29, 111–115.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Picklo, MJ, Amarnath, V, McIntyre, JO, Graham, DG & Montine, TJ (1999) 4 hydroxy-2(E)-nonenal inhibits CNS mitochondrial respiration at multiple sites. Journal of Neurochemistry 72, 1617–1624.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Poling, JS, Vicini, S, Rogawski, MA & Salem, N (1996) Docosahexaenoic acid block of neuronal voltage-gated K+ channels: subunit selective antagonism by zinc. Neuropharmacology 35, 969–982.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Pryor, WA (2000) Vitamin E and heart disease: basic science to clinical intervention trials. Free Radical Biological Medicine 28, 141–164.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Pullman-Mooar, S, Laposata, M, Lem, D, Holman, RT, Leventhal, LJ, DeMarco, D & Zurier, RB (1990) Alteration of the cellular fatty acid profile and the production of eicosanoids in human monocytes by gamma-linolenic acid. Arthritis and Rheumatism 33, 1526–1533.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Purasiri, P, McKechnie, A, Heys, SD & Eremin, O (1997) Modulation in vitro of human natural cytotoxicity, lymphocyte proliferative response to mitogens and cytokine production by essential fatty acids. Immunology 92, 166–172.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ralston, SH (1997) Nitric oxide and bone: What a gas!. British Journal of Rheumatology 36, 831–838.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ralston, SH & Grabowski, PS (1996) Mechanisms of cytokine induced bone resorption: role of nitric oxide, cyclic guanosine monophosphate and prostaglandins. Bone 19, 29–33.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rediske, JJ, Koehne, CF, Zhang, B & Lotz, M (1994) The inducible production of nitric oxide by articular cell types. Osteoarthritis and Cartilage 2, 199–206.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Renaud, S & De Lorgeril, M (1992) Wine, alcohol, platelets, and the French paradox for coronary heart disease. Lancet 339, 1523–1526.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Robinson, J, Watson, F, Bucknall, RC & Edwards, SW (1992) Activation of neutrophil reactive-oxidant production by synovial fluid from patients with inflammatory joint disease. Soluble and insoluble immunoglobulin aggregates activate different pathways in primed and unprimed cells. Biochem. J 286, 345–351.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Robinson, DR, Xu, LL, Tateno, S, Guo, M & Colvin, RB (1993) Suppression of autoimmune disease by dietary. n3-fatty acids Journal of Lipid Research 34, 1435–1444.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rothe, H, Hartmann, B, Geerlings, P & Kolb, H (1996) Interleukin-12 gene-expression of macrophages is regulated by nitric oxide. Biochemical and Biophysical Research Communications 224, 159–163.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rothman, D, Allen, H, Herzog, L, Pilapil, A, Seiler, CM & Zurier, RB (1997) Effects of unsaturated fatty acids on interleukin-1 beta production by human monocytes. Cytokine 9, 1008–1012.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rowley, DA, Gutteridge, JMC, Blake, DR, Farr, M & Halliwell, B (1984) Lipid peroxidation in rheumatoid arthritis: thiobarbituric acid – reactive material and catatylic iron salts in synovial fluid from rheumatoid patients. Clinical Science 66, 691–695.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sakurai, HG, Kohsaka, H, Liu, M-F, Higashiyama, H, Hirata, Y, Kanno, K, Saito, I & Miyasaka, N (1995) Nitric oxide production and inducible nitric oxide synthase expression in inflammatory arthritides. Journal of Clinical Investigation 96, 2357–2363.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sanders, TA & Hinds, A (1992) The influence of a fish oil high in docosahexaenoic acid on plasma lipoprotein and vitamin E concentrations and haemostatic function in healthy male volunteers. British Journal of Nutrition 68, 163–173.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Santoli, D & Zurier, RB (1989) Prostaglandin E precursor fatty acids inhibit human IL-2 production by a prostaglandin E-independent mechanism. Journal of Immunology 143, 1303–1309.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Santoli, D, Phillips, PD, Colt, TL & Zurier, RB (1990) Suppression of interleukin 2-dependent human T cell growth in vitro by prostaglandin E (PGE) and their precursor fatty acids. Evidence for a PGE-independent mechanism of inhibition by the fatty acids. Journal of Clinical Investigation 85, 424–432.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Santos, LL, Morand, EF, Yarng, Y, Hutchinson, P & Holdsworth, SR (1997) Suppression of adjuvant arthritis and synovial macrophage inducible nitric oxide by. N-iminoethyl-L-ornithine, a nitric oxide synthase inhibitor Inflammation 21, 299–311.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Saynor, R & Gillott, T (1992) Changes in blood lipids and fibrinogen with a note on safety in a long term study on the effects on. n-3 fatty acids in subjects receiving fish oil supplements and followed for seven years Lipids 27, 533–538.Google Scholar
Schalkwijk, J, van den Berg, WB, van de Putte, LBA & Joosten, LAB (1986) An experimental model for hydrogen peroxide-induced tissue damage. Effects of a single inflammatory mediator on peri-articular tissues. Arthritis and Rheumatism 29, 532–538.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Schmidt, EB & Dyerberg, J (1989) n-3 Fatty acids and leucocytes. Journal of Internal Medicine 225, 151–158.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Schuerwegh, AJ, de Clerck, LS, De Schutter, L, Bridts, CH, Verbruggen, A & Stevens, WJ (1999) Flow cytometric detection of type 1 (IL-2, IFNγ) and type II (IL-4, IL-5) cytokines in T-helper and T-suppressor/cytotoxic cells in rheumatoid arthritis, allergic asthma and atopic dermatitis. Cytokine 11, 783–788.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Shimizu, T, Radmark, O & Samuelsson, B (1984) Enzyme with dual lipoxygenase activities catalyzes leukotriene A4 synthesis from arachidonic acid. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the USA 81, 689–693.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Singh, D, Nazhat, NB, Fairburn, K, Sahinoglu, T, Blake, DR & Jones, P (1995) Electron spin resonance spectroscopic demonstration of the generation of reactive oxygen species by diseased human synovial tissue following ex vivo hypoxia-reoxygenation. Annals of the Rheumatic Diseases 54, 94–99.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Situnayake, RD, Thurnham, DI, Kootathep, S, Chirico, S, Lunec, J, Davis, M & McConkey, B (1991) Chain-breaking antioxidant status in rheumatoid arthritis: clinical and laboratory correlates. Annals of the Rheumatic Diseases 50, 81–86.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sklodowska, M, Gromadzinska, J, Biernacka, M, Wasowicz, W, Wolkanin, P, Marszalek, A, Brozik, H & Pokuszynska, K (1996) Vitamin E, thiobarbituric acid reactive substance concentrations and superoxide dismutase activity in the blood of children with juvenile rheumatoid arthritis. Clinical and Experimental Rheumatology 14, 433–439.Google ScholarPubMed
Somers, SD & Erickson, KL (1994) Alteration of TNFα production by macrophages from mice fed diets high in eicosapentaenoic and docosahexaenoic fatty acids. Cellular Immunology 153, 287–297.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Somers, SD, Chapkin, RS & Erickson, KL (1989) Alteration of in vitro murine peritoneal macrophage function by dietary enrichment with eicosapentaenoic and docosahexaenoic acids in menhaden fish oil. Cellular Immunology 123, 201–211.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sperling, RI, Weinblatt, M, Robin, JL, Ravalese, J, Hoover, RL, House, F, Coblyn, JS, Fraser, PA, Spur, BW, Robinson, DR, Lewis, RA & Austen, KF (1987) Effects of dietary supplementation with marine fish oil on leucocyte lipid mediator generation and function in rheumatoid arthritis. Arthritis and Rheumatism 30, 988–997.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Srinivasarao, P, Narayanareddy, K, Vajreswari, A, Rupalatha, M, Prakash, PS & Rao, P (1997) Influence of dietary fat on the activities of subcellular membrane-bound enxymes from different regions of rat brain. Neurochemistry International 31, 789–794.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Srinivasarao, P, Vajreswari, A, Rupalatha, PS & Narayanareddy, K (1997) Lipid composition and fatty acid profiles of myelin and synaptosomal membranes of rat brain in response to the consumption of different rats. Journal of Nutritional Biochemistry 8, 527–534.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
St Clair, EW, Wilkinson, WE, Lang, T, Sanders, L, Misukonis, MA, Gilkeson, GS, Pisetsky, DS, Granger, DL & Weinberg, JB (1996) Increased expression of blood mononuclear cell nitric oxide synthase type 2 in rheumatoid arthritis patients. Journal of Experimental Medicine 184, 1173–1178.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Stichtenoth, DO & Frolich, JC (1998) Nitric oxide and inflammatory joint diseases. British Journal of Rheumatology 37, 246–257.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Stichtenoth, DO, Fauler, J, Zeidler, H & Frolich, JC (1995) Urinary nitrate excretion is increased in patients with rheumatoid arthritis and reduced by prednisolone. Annals of the Rheumatic Diseases 54, 820–824.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Szabo, C (1998) Role of poly(ADP-ribose) synthetase in inflammation. European Jounral of Pharmacology 350, 1–19.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Szabo, C, Virag, L, Cuzzocrea, S, Scott, GS, Hake, P, O'Connor, MP, Zingarelli, B, Salzman, A & Kun, E (1998) Protection against peroxynitrite-induced fibroblast injury and arthritis development by inhibition of poly(ADP-ribose) synthase. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the USA 95, 3867–3872.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Tappia, PS & Grimble, RF (1994) Complex modulation of cytokine induction by endotoxin and tumour necrosis factor from peritoneal macrophages of rats by diets containing fats of different saturated, monounsaturated and polyunsaturated fatty acid composition. Clinical Science 87, 173–178.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Tappia, PS, Man, WJ & Grimble, RF (1995) Influence of unsaturated fatty acids on the production of tumour necrosis factor and interleukin-6 by rat peritoneal macrophages. Molecular and Cellular Biochemistry 143, 89–98.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Tarp, U, Overvad, K, Thorling, EB, Grandal, H & Hansen, JC (1985) Selenium treatment in rheumatoid arthritis. Scandinavian Journal of Rheumatology 14, 364–368.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Tarp, U, Hansen, JC, Overvad, K, Thorling, EB, Tarp, BD & Grandal, H (1987) Glutathione peroxidase activity in patients with rheumatoid arthritis and in normal subjects: Effects of long-term selenium supplementation. Arthritis and Rheumatism 30, 1162–1166.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Tiku, ML, Liesch, JB & Robertson, FM (1990) Production of hydrogen peroxide by rabbit articular chondrocytes. Enhancement by cytokines. Journal of Immunology 145, 690–696.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ueki, Y, Miyake, S, Tominaga, Y & Eguchi, K (1996) Increased nitric oxide levels in patients with rheumatoid arthritis. Journal of Rheumatology 23, 230–236.Google ScholarPubMed
Uesugi, M, Hayashi, T & Jasin, HE (1998) Covalent cross-linking of immune complexes by oxygen radicals and nitrite. Journal of Immunology 161, 1422–1427.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Uetrecht, J (1990) Drug metabolism by leukocytes and its role in drug-induced lupus and other idiosyncratic drug reactions. Critical Reviews in Toxicology 20, 213–235.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Verhoef, CM, Van Roon, JAG, Vianen, ME, Glaudemans, CAFM, Lafeber, FPJG & Bijlsma, JWJ (1999) Lymphocyte stimulation by CD3–CD28 enables detection of low T cell interferon-γ and IL-4 production in rheumatoid arthritis. Scandinavian Journal of Immunology 50, 427–432.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Vidgren, HM, Agren, JJ, Schwab, U, Rissanen, T, Hanninen, O & Uusitupa, MIJ (1997) Incorporation of n-3 fatty acids into plasma lipid fractions, and erythrocyte membranes and platelets during dietary supplementation with fish, fish oil, and docosahexaenoic acid-rich oil among healthy young men. Lipids 32, 697–705.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Vreugdenhil, M, Bruehl, C, Voskuyl, RA, Kang, JX, Leaf, A & Wadman, WJ (1996) Polyunsaturated fatty acids modulate sodium and calcium currents in CA1 neurones. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the USA 93, 12559–12563.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Walton, AJE, Snaith, ML, Locniskar, M, Cumberland, AG, Morrow, WJW & Isenberg, DA (1991) Dietary fish oil and the severity of symptoms in patients with systemic lupus erythematosus. Annals of the Rheumatic Diseases 50, 463–466.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wasil, M, Halliwell, B, Moorhouse, CP, Hutchison, DCS & Baum, H (1987) Biologically-significant scavenging of the myelo peroxidase-derived oxidant hypochlorous acid by some anti-inflammatory drugs. Biochemical Pharmacology 36, 3847–3850.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Watanabe, S, Hayashi, H, Onozaki, K & Okuyama, H (1991) Effect of dietary alpha-linolenate/linoleate balance on lipopolysaccharide-induced tumor necrosis factor production in mouse macrophages. Life Sciences 48, 2013–2020.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Watson, J, Byars, ML, McGill, P & Kelman, AW (1993) Cytokine and prostaglandin production by monocytes of volunteers and rheumatoid arthritis patients treated with dietary supplements of blackcurrant seed oil. British Journal of Rheumatology 32, 1055–1058.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Weinberg, JB (1998) Nitric oxide as an inflammatory mediator in autoimmune MRL-lpr/lpr mice. Environmental Health Perspectives 106, 1131–1137.Google ScholarPubMed
Whitehouse, MW & Graham, GG (1996) Is local biotransformation the key to understanding the pharmacological activity of salicylates and gold drugs?. Inflammation Research 45, 579–582.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Whitehouse, MW, Macrides, TA, Kalafatis, N, Betts, WH, Haynes, DR & Broadbent, J (1997) Anti-inflammatory activity of a lipid fraction from the NZ green-lipped mussel. Inflammopharmacology 5, 237–246.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Whiteman, M, Kaur, H & Halliwell, B (1996) Protection against peroxynitrite dependent tyrosine nitration and alpha1-antiproteinase inactivation by some anti-inflammatory drugs and by the antibiotic tetracycline. Annals of the Rheumatic Diseases 55, 383–387.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wigand, R, Meyer, J, Busse, R & Hecker, M (1997) Increased serum. N(G)-hydroxy-L-arginine in patients with rheumatoid arthritis and stemic lupus erythematosus as an index of increased nitric oxide synthase activity Annals of the Rheumatic Diseases 56, 330–332.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wu, D, Meydani, SN, Meydani, M, Hayek, MG, Huth, P & Nicolosi, RJ (1996) Immunologic effects of marine- and plant-derived n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids in non-human primates. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 63, 273–280.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Yang, YH, Hutchinson, P, Santos, LL & Morand, EF (1998) Glucocorticoid inhibition of adjuvant arthritis synovial macrophage nitric oxide production: Role of lipocortin I. Clinical and Experimental Immunology 111, 117–122.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Yaqoob, P & Calder, P (1995) Effects of dietary lipid manipulation upon inflammatory mediator production by murine macrophages. Cellular Immunology 163, 120–128.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Yaqoob, P, Newsholme, EA & Calder, PC (1994) Inhibition of natural killer cell activity by dietary lipids. Immunology Letters 41, 241–247.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Zuber, M & Miesel, R (1994) Xanthine oxidase and sulfhydryls and the antirheumatic action of xanthine oxidase inhibitor allopurinol in the animal model of collagen (II) arthritis. Aktuelle Rheumatologie 19, 90–98.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Zurier, RB (1980) Prostaglandins. Their potential in clinical medicine. Postgraduate Medicine 68, 70–81.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Zurier, RB (1993) Fatty acids, inflammation and immune responses. Prostaglandins, Leukotrienes and Essential Fatty Acids 48, 57–62.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed