Thanks to Robert Johnston, Dan Goffman, Maureen Flanagan, and the anonymous JGAPE reader for helpful comments and suggestions.

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⁴ Mohl, Raymond A., “New Perspectives on American Urban History,” in The Making of Urban America, 2nd ed., Mohl, Raymond (Wilmington, DE, 1997), 335–74.Google Scholar Subsequent discussions of the new urban history include Thernstrom, Stephan, “Reflections on the New Urban History,” Daedalus 100 (Spring 1971): 359–75Google Scholar; Hershberg, Theodore, “The New Urban History: Toward an Interdisciplinary History of the City” in Philadelphia: Work, Space, Family, and Group Experience in the Nineteenth Century: Essays Toward an Interdisciplinary History of the City, ed., Hershberg, Theodore (New York, 1981): 3–35.Google Scholar A recent statement of this approach is Hays, Samuel P., “From the History of the City to the History of Urbanized Society,” Journal of Urban History 19 (August 1993): 3–25.CrossRefGoogle Scholar Among the many other overviews of urban history, see , Gilfoyle, “White Cities, Linguistic Turns” and American Urbanism: A Historiographie Review, eds., Gillette, Howard Jr. and Miller, Zane L. (New York, 1987).Google Scholar

⁵ For a concise statement of this critique, see Monkonnen, Eric, America Becomes Urban: The Development of American Cities and Towns, 1780–1980 (Berkeley, 1988), 24–27.Google Scholar See also Mohl, Raymond A., “City and Region: The Missing Dimension in U.S. Urban History,” Journal of Urban History 25 (November 1998): 3–22.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

⁶ The key studies of social mobility include Thernstrom, Stephan, The Other Bostonians: Poverty and Progress in the American Metropolis, 1880–1970 (Cambridge, MA, 1973)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; idem, Poverty and Progress: Social Mobility in a Nineteenth-Century City (Cambridge, 1964); Chudacoff, Howard P., Mobile Americans: Residential and Social Mobility in Omaha, 1880–1920 (New York, 1972).Google Scholar A more sophisticated version of this approach is Zunz, Olivier, The Changing Face of Inequality: Urbanization, Industrial Development, and Immigrants in Detroit, 1880–1920 (Chicago, 1982).Google Scholar

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¹⁰ Chudacoff, Mobile Americans; Themstrom, , Other Bostonians, 9–28Google Scholar; Hershberg, Philadelphia: Work, Space, Family, and Group Experience; Miller, Zane L., Boss Cox's Cincinnati: Urban Politics in the Progressive Era (Columbus, OH, 1968).Google Scholar Miller drew on the approach to urban space articulated by the Chicago School. See Burgess, Ernest W., “The Growth of the City: An Introduction to a Research Project,” in The City, eds., Park, Robert E., Burgess, Ernest W., and McKenzie, Roderick D. (Chicago, 1925): 47–62.Google Scholar See also McCarthy, Michael, “The New Metropolis: Chicago, the Annexation Movement, and Progressive Reform,” in The Age of Urban Reform: New Perspectives on the Progressive Era, eds., Ebner, Michael E. and Tobin, Eugene (Port Washington, NY, 1977): 43–54.Google Scholar

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¹³ Lefebvre, Henri, The Production of Space (Oxford, UK, 1991)Google Scholar, translated by Donald Nicholson-Smith. See Reiff, Janice L., “Rethinking Pullman: Urban Space and Working-Class Activism,” Social Science History 24 (Spring 2000), 11–13Google Scholar for a clear and concise summary of Lefebvre's three categories. Theoretical work on space is extensive. Valuable works include Soja, Edward W., Postmodern Geographies: The Reassertion of Space in Critical Social Theory (London, 1989)Google Scholar; Harvey, David, The Condition of Postmodernity: An Enquiry into the Origins of Cultural Change (Oxford, UK, 1989)Google Scholar; Foucault, Michel, “Of Other Spaces,” Diacritics (Spring 1986): 22–27CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Wright, Gwendolyn and Rabinow, Paul, “Spatialization of Power: A Discussion of the Work of Michel Foucault,” Skyline (March 1982): 14–20.Google Scholar

¹⁴ Reiff, , “Rethinking Pullman,” 13–19.Google Scholar Reiff carries this analysis forward to the 1950s, with special attention to the racial dimensions of spatial change in the city.

¹⁵ Deutsch, Sarah, Women and the City: Gender, Space, and Power in Boston, 1870–1940 (New York, 2000).Google Scholar

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¹⁷ Hirsch, Arnold, Making the Second Ghetto: Race and Housing in Chicago, 1940–1960 (Cambridge, MA, 1983)Google Scholar; Gamm, Gerald, Urban Exodus: Why the Jews Left Boston and the Catholics Stayed (Cambridge, MA, 1999)Google Scholar; McGreevey, John T., Parish Boundaries: The Catholic Encounter with Race in the Twentieth-Century Urban North (Chicago, 1996)Google Scholar; Sugrue, Thomas J., The Origins of the Urban Crisis: Race and Inequality in Postwar Detroit (Princeton, 1996), 238Google Scholar, 241, 244; Sterne, Evelyn Savidge, “Bringing Religion into Working-Class History: Parish, Public, and Politics in Providence, 1890–1930,” Social Science History 24 (Spring 2000): 149–82Google Scholar; McMahon, Eileen M., What Parish Are You From?: A Chicago Irish Community and Race Relations (Lexington, KY, 1995).Google Scholar

¹⁸ Chauncey, George, Gay New York: Gender, Urban Culture, and the Making of the Gay Male World, 1890–1940 (New York, 1994)Google Scholar; Gilfoyle, Timothy J., City of Eros: New York City, Prostitution, and the Commercialization of Sex, 1790–1920 (New York, 1992), esp. 179–315Google Scholar; Mumford, Kevin J., Interzones: Black/White Sex Districts in Chicago and New York in the Early Twentieth Century (New York, 1997)Google Scholar; Hanchett, Thomas W., Sorting Out the New South City: Race, Class, and Urban Development in Charlotte, 1875–1975 (Chapel Hill, 1998)Google Scholar; Baldwin, Peter C., Domesticating the Street: The Reform of Public Space in Hartford, 1850–1930 (Columbus, OH, 1999).Google Scholar On race and space, see also Miller, Zane and Tucker, Bruce, Changing Plans for America's Inner Cities: Cincinnati's Over-The-Rhine and Twentieth-Century Urbanism (Columbus, OH, 1998)Google Scholar; Wiese, Andrew, “The Other Suburbanites: African-American Suburbanization in the North before 1950,” Journal of American History 85 (March 1999): 1495–1524.CrossRefGoogle Scholar For summaries of the enormous literature on topics such as ghetto formation, ethnic neighborhoods, suburbanization, and other spatially-charged topics, a good place to start is Mohl, “New Perspectives on American Urban History.”

¹⁹ Hayden, Dolores, The Power of Place, 15–43Google Scholar; Tilly, Charles, “What Good Is Urban History?” Journal of Urban History 22 (September 1996): 702–19CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Cayton, Andrew R.L., “On the Importance of Place, or, A Plea for Idiosyncrasy,” Journal of Urban History 24 (November 1997): 79–87CrossRefGoogle Scholar (quotation on page 81). See also Sandweiss, Eric, “Searching for a ‘Sense of Place,’” Journal of Urban History 24 (November 1997): 88–96CrossRefGoogle Scholar and Jenner, Mark S.R., “Underground, Overground: Pollution and Place in Urban History,” Journal of Urban History 24 (November 1997): 97–110CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Wingerd, Mary Lethert, “City Limits: Politics, Faith, and the Power of Place in Urban America, St. Paul, Minnesota, 1838–1934” (Ph.D. diss, Duke University, 1998).Google Scholar

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²¹ Agnew, John A., “The Devaluation of Place in Social Science,” in Agnew and Duncan, The Power of Place, 9–29.Google Scholar See also, Oram, Anthony M., “The Urban Imagination of Sociologists: The Centrality of Place,” Sociological Quarterly 39 (Winter 1998): 1–11.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

²² Goldfield, David R., Cotton Fields and Skyscrapers: Southern City and Region, 1607–1980 (Baton Rouge, LA, 1982)Google Scholar; idem, “The Origins of Southern Regionalism,” in Region, Race, and Cities: Interpreting the Urban South, ed., David R. Goldfield (Baton Rouge, 1997); idem, “The New Regionalism,” Journal of Urban History 10 (February 1984): 171–86; Brownell, Blaine A., The Urban Ethos in the South, 1920–1930 (Baton Rouge, 1975).Google ScholarO'Connor, Carol A., “A Region of Cities,” in Milner, Clyde A. II, O'Connor, Carol A. and Sandweiss, Martha, eds., The Oxford History of the American West (New York, 1994): 534–63Google Scholar; Abbott, Carl, “The Metropolitan Region: Western Cities in the New Urban Era,” in The Twentieth Century West: Historical Interpretations, eds., Nash, Gerald D. and Etulain, Richard W. (Albuquerque, NM, 1989): 71–98Google Scholar; idem, The Metropolitan Frontier: Cities in the Modern American West (Tucson, 1993); idem, TheNew Urban America: Growth and Politics in Sunbelt Cities (Chapel Hill, 1987, rev. ed.); Luckingham, Bradford, The Urban Southwest: A Profile History of Albuquerque, El Paso, Phoenix, Tucson (El Paso, TX, 1982)Google Scholar; Cronon, William, Nature's Metropolis: Chicago and the Great West (New York, 1991).Google Scholar Useful perspectives on regionalism include Mohl, “New Perspectives on American Urban History,” 345–48; idem, “City and Region”; and Orum, Anthony M., City Building in America (Boulder, CO, 1995).Google Scholar

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²⁴ Wilson, Chris, The Myth of Santa Fe: Creating a Modern Regional Tradition (Albuquerque, NM, 1997)Google Scholar; Holleran, Michael, Boston's “Changeful Times”: Origins of Preservation and Planning in America (Baltimore, 1998).Google Scholar See also Hamer, David, History in Urban Places: The Historic Districts of the United States (Columbus, OH, 1998)Google Scholar for a treatment of historic districts as cultural constructions.

²⁵ Tilly, , “What Good is Urban History,” 702, 710.Google Scholar

²⁶ Ibid., 710. Mohl, “City and Region” is one response to Tilly.

²⁷ Wingerd, Mary Lethert, Claiming the City: Politics, Faith, and the Power of Place in St. Paul (Ithaca, 2001).Google Scholar Wingerd's book was published too late for inclusion in this article. The discussion below is based on her dissertation.

²⁸ Wingerd, “City Limits.”

²⁹ Ibid., 3.

³⁰ Conzen, Kathleen Neils, et al. “The Invention of Ethnicity: A Perspective from the U.S.A.,” Journal of American Ethnic History 12 (Fall 1992): 3–42.Google Scholar See also Conzen, , “Mainstreams and Side Channels: The Localization of Immigrant Cultures,” Journal of American Ethnic History 11 (September 1991): 5–21Google Scholar for a discussion of the importance of local context for understanding ethnic experience. Examples of place-conscious local studies of ethnic life include Emmons, David M., The Butte Irish: Class and Ethnicity in an American Mining Town, 1875–1925 (Urbana, 1989)Google Scholar; Mormino, Gary R. and Pozzetta, George E., The Immigrant World of Ybor City: Italians and their Latin Neighbors in Tampa, 1885–1985 (Urbana, 1987)Google Scholar; Sanchez, George J., Becoming Mexican-American: Ethnicity, Culture, and Identity in Chicane Los Angeles, 1900–1945 (New York, 1995)Google Scholar; Kazal, Russell Andrew, “Becoming ‘Old Stock’: The Waning of German-American Identity in Philadelphia, 1900–1930” (Ph.D. diss., University of Pennsylvania, 1998).Google Scholar

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³² Tilly, , “What Good is Urban History,” 714.Google Scholar For comparison with the Irish in other cities, see Emmons, The Butte Irish; Connolly, James J., The Triumph of Ethnic Progressivism: Urban Political Culture in Boston, 1900–1925 (Cambridge, MA, 1998)Google Scholar; Bayor, Ronald H. and Meagher, Timothy J., The New York Irish (Baltimore, 1996).Google Scholar

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