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Index

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  24 October 2025

Edited by
Tiina Pajuste
Tiina Pajuste
Affiliation:
Tallinn University

Information

Type
Chapter
Information
Human Rights in the Digital Domain
Core Questions
 , pp. 461 - 471
Publisher: Cambridge University Press
Print publication year: 2025
Creative Commons
Creative Common License - CCCreative Common License - BYCreative Common License - NC
This content is Open Access and distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution licence CC-BY-NC 4.0 https://creativecommons.org/cclicenses/

Index

Abílio, Ludmila Costhek, 424–428
abuse of rights doctrine, 186–188
access to the internet right, 25, 61, 79–80, 123
Acselrad, Henri, 433
addiction to the internet. See internet addiction
adolescents, 113, 116, 118–119, 121–123. See also children’s welfare protection
advertising control, 75–76, 390–391. See also microtargeting
aerial surveillance. See drone use control
African Charter on Human and Peoples’ Rights 1981, 26, 43
African Declaration on Internet Rights and Freedoms, 53
age-related concerns. See children’s welfare protection; elderly persons
AI governance and human rights
AIA. See Artificial Intelligence Act (EU)
algorithmic secrecy problem, 166–167
Chinese approach, 28
Council of Europe initiatives, 29–33, 37–39
drone use control. See drone use control
global initiatives, 28–29
other EU instruments, 36
self-regulation by AI industry, 27–28, 253
specific rights concerns, 24, 26–27, 404
summary of main arguments, 11–12, 19–20
US approach, 28
Algorithm Watch (NGO), 35
Alston, Philip, 23
Alvear, Celso Alexandre, 430
Amorim, Felipi Vieira, 435
anonymity online, 121, 141, 143, 185–186
anti-terrorism investigations, 55–56
Antunes, Ricardo, 424, 426
app-based businesses, 88–89, 427–428
Aristotle, 143
armed conflicts, disinformation in, 225
Article 19 (NGO), 105
Artificial Intelligence Act (EU). See also AI governance and human rights
AI transparency duty, 399–400, 405
background to, 33–35, 394–397
children’s welfare protection under, 394–406
complementarity with other regimes, 37–38
generally, 328–329, 383
global reach and influence (potential), 6, 36
implementation, 36–37
platforms, application to, 61
rights under, 39
risk management approach, 35–36, 328
Asilomar Principles on Beneficial AI, 27
Australia
drone use control, 304–305
smartphone use bans in schools, 134
Austria, linguistic rights initiative, 422
Barclay, Donald A., 210
Bayer, Judit, 319, 322–323
Belmessous, Saliha, 100
Bennett, Colin J., 322
big data, 268–269
Bigliardi, Rossane, 434–436
binge-watching, 117, 119
biometric data processing, 34, 36–38, 289–290, 350
Bitcoin, 87–88
Bjola, Cornelieu, 48
Blasi Casagran, Cristina, 326
blockchain applications, 106, 343, 346
blocking orders (EU), 172–173
Bodo, Balázs, 312–313
Borgesius, F. J. Zuiderveen, 321
Botero Marino, Catalina, 210–211, 231–232
Brandeis, Louis, 105, 201–202
Brazil, technologically-driven labour precarity
Environmental Education response, 432–437
forms of resistance, 428–430
labour rights, international law on, 431–432
overview of problem, 425–428
summary of main arguments, 357–358, 424–425, 436–437
Brexit referendum campaign (UK), 80, 200, 308, 311
Brunnée, Jutta, 46
Cambridge Analytica scandal, 200, 209, 320
Canada
disability discrimination protection, 135–136
disconnection right for workers, 132
drone use control, 304–305
horizontal effect of constitutional rights, 69, 75–76
smartphone use bans in schools, 134
Cannie, Hannes, 187
Carvalho, Maria de, 433–434
cell phones. See smartphones
censorship. See also freedom of expression
blocking orders (EU), 172–173, 243
self-censorship risks, 189–191, 288, 296, 299
social harms of, 49, 53–54
state policies of, 54, 255
Charter of Digital Fundamental Rights of the European Union (proposal), 21–22
Charter of Digital Rights (EDRi), 24
Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union
AI governance and, 37
digital rights proposals inspired by, 21–22
on general interest limitations, 40
generally, 136
horizontal application, 77–79
positive obligations under, 160
preamble, 40
specific rights under, 286–287, 298, 373–374, 381, 392, 398
Charter of Human Rights and Principles for the Internet (Internet Rights and Principles Coalition), 20–21
Charter on Digital Rights (Spain), 23
ChatGPT, 19, 26–27, 34, 110–112, 253
Cheng, Helen H. L., 50
children’s welfare protection
adolescents, 113, 116, 118–119, 121–123
Artificial Intelligence Act (EU) on, 394–407
best interests principle, 135, 392, 405, 407
child sexual exploitation initiatives, 247–248
children’s experiences in digital domain, 383–385
Council of Europe guidelines on, 128–129, 136, 381
digital ethics education, 146–148
Digital Services Act (EU) on, 385–394, 405–406
EU regime, children’s rights perspective, 405–408
freedom of expression, tension with, 72, 96, 247–248, 404
minority language users. See linguistic marginalisation in online education
screen time restrictions, 127–129, 390
smartphone use bans, 133–134
summary of main arguments, 356–357, 381–383, 408
China
AI governance in, 28
internet governance in, 254–255, 350
social behaviour monitoring in, 26
Citron, Danielle, 58, 292
civil society
disinformation control by, 214, 233, 236
Fairwork initiative, 426–427, 432
independent regulatory bodies, 52–55
NGO activity restrictions, 186, 197
public watchdog role, 193–194
collective versus individual human rights, 25–26, 40, 42–47
Collingridge, David, 306
Common Good Constitutionalism, 41–44
Communications Decency Act (US), 72–74
constitutional rights, horizontal application. See also human rights in digital domain
democratic legitimacy rationale, 79–81
EU online privacy regulation, 76–79
horizontal effect theories, 64–67
offline context, comparative approaches, 67–70
online speech regulation, comparative approaches, 71–76, 256–257
public/private law distinction, 62–64, 280, 282
summary of main arguments, 12–13, 58–62, 81–82
contact-tracing apps in COVID-19 pandemic
EU and Council of Europe juridical framework, 273–274
health sector technology generally, 271–272, 374
lessons offered from failure, 275–282
summary of main arguments, 262, 267–268, 282
vaccines compared, 274–275
Convention 108+ (Council of Europe), 25, 32
Convention Against Discrimination in Education 1960, 411
Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities 2007, 136, 411–412
Convention on the Rights of the Child 1989 (UNCRC), 20, 381–382, 387, 392, 398, 407, 411
Cooper, M. N., 362
copyright law
cached copies of copyright material, 88
EU law, freedom of expression implications, 242–243
new rule creation for online context, 86
Costhek Abílio, Ludmila, 424, 426–428
Council of Europe
AI governance initiatives, 29–33, 37–39
children’s welfare measures, 128–129, 381
Convention 108+, 25, 32
Cybercrime Convention 2001, 33
ECHR. See European Convention on Human Rights 1950 (ECHR)
internet and human rights initiatives, 21, 61–62, 107–108, 254
linguistic rights initiatives, 413–417
COVID-19 pandemic
constitutional problems posed by, 272–273
contact-tracing apps in. See contact-tracing apps in COVID-19 pandemic
disinformation in, 48–49, 200, 208, 311
responses, 202, 222, 234, 236–240
drone use in, 284
labour market changes in, 132, 425–426
lockdown of schools in, 419–422
Ofqual algorithm controversy (UK), 404
telemedicine in, 374
vulnerable groups, impact on, 359, 417–419, 425–426, 433–434
criminal law enforcement
anti-terrorism investigations, 55–56, 73–74
ethics promotion alternative. See digital ethics
hate speech control. See hate speech control
internet addiction as potential defence, 116
motivations for crime in online context, 143–146
new rule creation for online context, 85–86, 138–141
summary of main arguments, 15, 55–56, 148–149
surveillance for, 142–143
Croatia, linguistic rights initiatives, 419, 421
Cruz, Ricardo, 435–436
cryptocurrencies, 87–88
cyberbullying. See online harassment
cybercrime. See criminal law enforcement
Cybercrime Convention 2001 (Council of Europe), 33
Dagnino, Renato, 424, 429
data protection. See privacy and data protection rights
Declaration on Digital Rights and Principles for the Digital Decade 2023 (European Commission), 33–34, 38, 131, 253, 256, 324, 370–371
Declaration on the Rights of Persons Belonging to National or Ethnic, Religious or Linguistic Minorities (UN), 410
deepfakes, 201, 311, 399
defamatory content control
anonymity problem, 185–186
hyperlinks to defamatory content, 86–87
injunctions, 244
removal right, 95–96
deletion of personal information right. See right to be forgotten
democracy protection. See also freedom of expression
civil society actors. See civil society
COVID-19 pandemic and, 272–273
democracy argumentation in Europe, 177–179, 196, 250
digital divide undermining, 373–374
disinformation control. See disinformation control
dissolution of political parties, 184–185, 191–192
election manipulation concerns, 80, 91–93, 140, 199–200, 210, 223–224, 308, 311, 322
established doctrines on, 179–182
hate speech control. See hate speech control
horizontal effect of constitutional rights for, 79–81
press freedom and media pluralism, 182–184, 192–197, 298, 316
self-regulation by tech industry and, 81, 107–108
summary of main arguments, 154, 175–176, 196–198
trust as prerequisite for, 279, 281–282
Dewey, John, 58
Digital Compass (European Commission policy targets for 2030), 324, 371, 376, 379
digital context, legal effects. See online context, legal effects
digital divide. See also vulnerable groups
age gap, 372–375
law and policy responses, 375–378
contributory factors, 363–364
gender gap, 364–368, 378
law and policy responses, 368–372
in online education. See linguistic marginalisation in online education
summary of main arguments, 356, 361–363, 378–380
Digital Economy Partnership Agreement, 338, 348–349
digital ethics
education on, 146–148
ethical uses of AI, 32–33
individual responsibility-taking, 133, 144–145, 274–275
digital human rights. See also human rights in digital domain
AI governance context. See AI governance and human rights
concerns about, 22–26
content removal, procedural rights, 169–172
digital self-determination right, 22, 24, 38
disconnection right, 129–134, 136
erasure of personal data right, 106
explanation of decisions right, 35, 61
internet access right, 25, 61, 79–80, 123, 341
non-coherence theory. See non-coherence theory of digital human rights
proposals for, 21–22, 38–39
right to be forgotten. See right to be forgotten
translation right, 61
universal acceptance not required, 23, 38–39, 104–105
digital humanism, 21
digital identity creation, 106, 143
digital investments. See investment practices in digital domain
Digital Market Act (EU), 61
digital self-determination right, 22, 24, 38. See also right to be forgotten
Digital Services Act (EU)
children’s welfare protection under, 385–394, 405–406
complaint and redress mechanism, 167, 172, 388
disinformation control under, 252
freedom of expression implications. See EU law, freedom of expression implications
generally, 36, 61, 168, 327–328, 385
global reach and impact (potential), 244–245, 252
hate speech control under, 246
liability exemption rules, 164–165
‘notice and action’ rules, 170
digitalisation, public law perspective on, 268–271
disability rights protection, 135–136, 298, 377, 405, 411–412
disconnection right, 129–134, 136
disinformation control
algorithms for, 19, 26–27, 232, 234, 314
for children’s welfare protection, 394, 399
‘disinformation’ term, 204–206, 312
emerging rules, 230–233
European Commission Communication on, 225–230
fake news phenomenon. See fake news
four top-level responses, 214–216
freedom of expression, tension with, 202, 251–252, 315–319
generally, 24, 185, 312–315
by Inter-American Court of Human Rights, 220–223
joint declarations by international bodies, 216–220, 224–225
by media and civil society actors, 214, 233, 236
microtargeted online disinformation, 323–331
social harms of disinformation, 47–49, 184, 195, 199–202
state responses, 213, 223–224
summary of main arguments, 155, 202–203, 240, 263, 308–310, 331–332
by tech industry, 213–214, 234–240
Drittwirkung doctrine (Germany), 68–69, 74–75
drone use control
balancing competing rights, 297–299, 305–306
EU law and policy, 299–304
in non-EU jurisdictions, 304–305
privacy concerns about drones, 286–297
summary of main arguments, 262–263, 283–286, 307
Dror-Shpoliansky, Dafna, 104
DSA. See Digital Services Act (EU)
ECHR. See European Convention on Human Rights 1950 (ECHR)
e-commerce, addiction to, 116, 121
EDRi (European Digital Rights network), 24, 35
education initiatives
on digital ethics, 146–148
digital literacy for vulnerable groups, 368–369, 371, 375–379, 402
Environmental Education, 432–437
on fake news spotting, 212–213, 216, 227
for minority language users. See linguistic marginalisation in online education
Edwards, Lillian, 313
elderly persons
digital access problems, 372–375
law and policy responses, 375–378
internet addiction risk, 122
rights protection, UN initiatives, 347
election manipulation concerns, 80, 91–93, 140, 199–200, 210, 223–224, 308, 311, 322
Environmental Education, 432–437
erasure of personal data right, 106. See also right to be forgotten
ethics in digital domain. See digital ethics
EU law and policy
AIA. See Artificial Intelligence Act (EU)
Charter. See Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union
children’s welfare protection. See children’s welfare protection
Declaration on Digital Rights and Principles for the Digital Decade 2023, 33–34, 38, 131, 253, 256, 324, 370–371
digital divide, policies on, 370–371, 376–377, 379
Digital Market Act, 61
disinformation control initiative, 225–230
drone use control, 299–304
DSA. See Digital Services Act (EU)
freedom of expression implications. See EU law, freedom of expression implications
GDPR. See General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR)
horizontal effect of EU law, 76–79
internet addiction, policy responses, 125–127, 130–132, 136–137
on microtargeting, 323–331
EU law, freedom of expression implications
balancing of interests entrusted to tech industry, 163–167, 172–173
children’s welfare protection, tension with, 247–248, 404
copyright law, 242–243
defamatory content control, 244
fragmented internet concern, 252–254
hate speech control, 245–246
international law regime alternative, 254–257
platforms’ risk assessment duties, 244–245
right to be forgotten. See right to be forgotten
summary of main arguments, 155–156, 241–242, 258
US freedom of speech law compared, 248–252
European Charter for Regional and Minority Languages 1992 (Council of Europe), 416–417, 422
European Convention on Human Rights 1950 (ECHR)
democracy protection under. See democracy protection
freedom of expression rights, 175, 315–319
horizontal application, 60, 68
linguistic rights protection under, 413–416
positive obligations under, 160–161
right to effective remedy, 38, 160
right to respect for private and family life, 287–289
European Declaration on Digital Rights and Principles for the Digital Decade 2023 (European Commission), 33–34, 38, 131, 253, 324, 370–371
European Digital Rights network (EDRi), 24, 35
European Union. See EU law and policy
explanation right, 35, 61
Facebook/Meta
bans of accounts, 59, 170, 231–232, 256–257
Cambridge Analytica scandal, 200, 209, 320
disclosure order application against, 84–85
disinformation control, 235–237
EU law, pushback against, 254
hate speech control, 73–75, 188–192
Human Rights Oversight Board generally, 23, 81, 196–197
uploading of infringing content to, 58–59
facial recognition technology, 142, 290, 295, 350
Fairwork initiative, 426–427, 432
fake news. See also disinformation control
control of. See disinformation control
in COVID-19 pandemic, 48, 200, 208, 311
responses, 202, 222, 234, 236–240
deepfakes, 201, 311, 399
‘disinformation’ term preferred, 312
education initiatives on, 212–213, 216, 227, 229
false news distinguished, 207–212
historical examples, 311–312
‘real’ news distinguished, 206–207
socio-affective mechanism, 201, 209–210
fantasy sports games, 117
Fernandes de Oliveira Miranda, Májory, 208–209
financial technology (FinTech), 342
First Amendment (US), 58, 71–74, 96, 248–251
Foran, Michael, 42
foreign investments. See investment practices in digital domain
Framework Convention for the Protection of National Minorities 1995 (Council of Europe), 416–417
Framework Convention on Artificial Intelligence, Human Rights, Democracy and the Rule of Law 2024 (Council of Europe), 31–33, 37–39
France
disconnection right for workers, 130, 132
hate crime control, 71–72, 74–75
horizontal effect of constitutional rights, 67–68, 257
smartphone use bans in schools, 133–134
freedom of expression
censorship. See censorship
children’s welfare protection, tension with, 72, 96, 247–248, 404
defamatory content control. See defamatory content control
democracy protection rationale. See democracy protection
digital divide undermining. See digital divide
digital identity creation, 106, 143
disinformation control. See disinformation control
ECHR Article 10, 175, 315–319
EU law, implications for. See EU law, freedom of expression implications
hate speech control. See hate speech control
horizontal application. See constitutional rights, horizontal application
internet access right, 25, 61, 79–80, 123, 341
online speech regulation, comparative approaches, 71–76
political expression, 91–93, 317–318
positive obligations. See freedom of expression, positive state obligations
press freedom and media pluralism, 182–184, 192–197, 298, 316
right to be forgotten, tension with, 25
summary of main arguments, 4–5, 153–157
freedom of expression, positive state obligations
effective remedies and procedural safeguards, 169–172
justificatory arguments, 167–169
liability laws for platforms, 163–169, 172–173
offline context, 161–162
positive obligations generally, 160–161
scope of, 162–163
summary of main arguments, 154, 159–160, 173–174
Fuller, Lon L., 41, 44–47, 50–51, 56
gaming and gambling online, 116–117, 120–121, 126–127. See also internet addiction
Gardbaum, Stephen, 70
GDHRNet (Global Digital Human Rights Network), 2–3
GDPR. See General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR)
gender digital divide. See also digital divide
analysis of, 364–368, 378
law and policy responses, 368–372
General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR)
AI governance under, 36
freedom of expression implications. See EU law, freedom of expression implications
generally, 325–326
global reach and influence, 6, 241–242, 253, 310
health sector technology application, 271
microtargeting control under, 325–327, 391
right to be forgotten. See right to be forgotten
other mentions, 24, 406–407
Germany
civil servants’ political loyalty duty, 177
disconnection right for workers, 130
hate speech control, 74–75
horizontal effect of constitutional rights, 68–69, 257
informational self-determination right, 22, 24
internet addiction, policy responses, 127
gig economy workers. See Brazil, technologically-driven labour precarity
Global Digital Compact (UN), 21, 29
Global Digital Human Rights Network (GDHRNet), 2–3
Goldberg, Ivan, 114
Goodhart, Arthur L., 83
Google
hate speech on, 73–74
right to be forgotten on, 25, 77–79, 93, 246–247
Gray, David, 292
Griffiths, Mark, 114
Grohmann, Rafael, 424, 426–427
Guiding Principles on Business and Human Rights (UN), 60, 168, 346–347
Guterres, António, 1, 261, 355, 362, 378
Habermas, Jürgen, 47, 79, 280
Harari, Yuval Noah, 268
harassment. See online harassment
hate speech control
abuse of rights doctrine application, 186–188
actual harm assessments, 90–91
anonymity problem, 185–186
COVID-19 pandemic, hate speech in, 418
in election campaigns, 190
by Facebook, 188–192
generally, 24, 313
in Germany, 74–75
identification of hate speech problem, 190
journalistic reports of hate speech, 182
as positive state obligation, 186
self-regulation by tech industry, 165
state regulation. See state regulation of the internet
in US, 73–74
health sector technology, 271–272, 374. See also contact-tracing apps in COVID-19 pandemic
heckler’s veto, 181
Holmes, Oliver Wendell, 71, 249, 323
Holmes, Stephen, 80
horizontal application of constitutional rights. See constitutional rights, horizontal application
human dignity right, 27, 31, 43, 46, 68, 109, 173
Human Rights Council (UN), 20, 27, 79, 104, 376
human rights in digital domain. See also constitutional rights, horizontal application
children’s rights. See children’s welfare protection
core questions. See human rights in digital domain, core questions
digitalisation, public law perspective on, 268–271
early initiatives, 20–21
horizontal application. See constitutional rights, horizontal application
legal effects of online context. See online context, legal effects
methodology and structure of study, 3–5
new rights. See digital human rights
non-coherence theory. See non-coherence theory of digital human rights
scope of study, 6–7
state regulation. See state regulation of the internet
human rights in digital domain, core questions
what difference does it make to move online?, 11–18
how should freedom of expression be applied?, 153–157
how should human rights law respond to challenges?, 261–265
what additional challenges are faced by vulnerable groups?, 355–359
Hume, David, 96
hyperlinks to defamatory content, 86–87
Iceland, drone use control, 305
identity creation online, 106, 143
inadequacy of protection thesis, 101–102. See also non-coherence theory of digital human rights
indecent material, 72, 96, 116, 121, 247–248
independent regulatory bodies, 52–55
India, digital divide in, 363, 366
indirect horizontal effect theory, 66–67
individual responsibility-taking, 133, 144–145, 274–275
individual versus collective human rights, 25–26, 40, 42–47
International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights 1966, 20, 160, 347, 410
International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights 1966, 20, 135, 347, 410–411
international investments. See investment practices in digital domain
internet access right, 25, 61, 79–80, 123, 341
internet addiction
consumer safety responses, 126–127
disconnection right recognition for, 129–134, 136
international norm development on, 135–137
internet-specific challenges posed by, 123–124
internet-specific features contributing to, 120–123
medico-legal perspective, 114–116
negative consequences, 118–119
public health policy responses, 124–126
screen time restrictions for children, 127–129, 390
summary of main arguments, 14–15, 113–114, 137
types, 116–118
internet context, legal effects. See online context, legal effects
Internet Governance Forum (UN), 255
internet intermediaries. See platforms
Internet of Things (IoT), 24, 293–294
internet regulation. See state regulation of the internet
investment practices in digital domain
international agreements on, 348–351
investment types, 340–342
pillars of rights and obligations, 342–346
summary of main arguments, 263–264, 333–335, 351–352
UN instruments on, 346–348
unified human rights theory, scope for, 335–340
virtual currencies, 87–88
IoT (Internet of Things), 24, 293–294
Ireland
disclosure order application against Facebook, 84–85
horizontal effect of constitutional rights, 67
iRobot, 58–59
Johnstone, Ian, 48
Jordan, gender digital divide in, 365
journalistic freedom, 182–184, 192–197, 298, 316
judicial precedents theory, 83–84
Kelsen, Hans, 64
Kettemann, Matthias C., 109
Khan, Irene, 199–200, 225
Kohlberg, Lawrence, 146
Königs, Peter, 140, 142
Kulesza, Joanna, 102
Kumm, Mattias, 66
La Rue, Frank, 20, 108, 190
labour precarity in Brazil. See Brazil, technologically-driven labour precarity
labour rights, 367, 431–432
legal principles, 96–97
legal reasoning in online context. See online context, legal effects
libel. See defamatory content control
limitation clauses in human rights treaties, 40, 42
linguistic marginalisation in online education. See also COVID-19 pandemic
Council of Europe, linguistic rights initiatives, 413–417
in COVID-19 pandemic, 419–422
summary of main arguments, 357, 409, 422–423
UN linguistic rights initiatives, 409–412
Liu, Alan, 107
Llewellyn, Karl N., 84
Locke, John, 64, 139
Loureiro, Carlos Frederico, 434, 436
Lyon, David, 322
Magarin, Gregory P., 109
Malgieri, Gianclaudio, 401
Mantelero, Alessandro, 30
marginalised people. See vulnerable groups
Marique, Enguerrand, 108
Marique, Yseult, 108
Marsden, Chris, 313, 332
media pluralism, 194–197
Melo, Verónica E., 201
mentally disordered persons, 117–118, 122–123, 135–136
Meta. See Facebook/Meta
Meyer, Trisha, 313, 332
Michalkiewicz-Kadziela, Ewa, 106
microtargeting. See also disinformation control; fake news
EU law and policy on, 323–331, 390–391
human rights and democracy implications, 319–323
Milczarek, Ewa, 106
minority language users. See linguistic marginalisation in online education
misinformation. See disinformation control
mobile phones. See smartphones
Molina, Maria D., 206–207, 209–212
multistakeholderist veil thesis, 102–103. See also non-coherence theory of digital human rights
Musk, Elon, 19, 239, 251–252
natural law theory, 41–44, 64–65
NGOs. See civil society
non-coherence theory of digital human rights. See also online context, legal effects
additional theses, 109–110
dual nature of human rights thesis, 102
inadequacy of protection thesis, 101–102
multistakeholderist veil thesis, limitations of, 102–103
normative transformation scenarios, 99–101
privacy law application, 105–107
sameness of rights doctrine, limitations of, 103–105
summary of main arguments (by ChatGPT), 14, 24–25, 99, 110–112
time-related concerns, 107–109
Norway, drone use control, 305
obscene material, 72, 96, 116, 121, 247–248
Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights (OHCHR), 27
Ofqual algorithm controversy (UK), 404
OHCHR (Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights), 27
old people. See elderly persons
online context, legal effects
academic debate on, 93–95
actual harm assessments, 89–93
balancing of human rights cases, 84–85
differences that vanish, 95–96
horizontal application of constitutional rights. See constitutional rights, horizontal application
internet addiction as human rights issue. See internet addiction
judicial precedents theory, 83–84
jurisprudential implications, 96–97
new human rights. See digital human rights
new rule creation by courts, 85–86
non-coherence theory. See non-coherence theory of digital human rights
purpose and function assessments, 86–89
summary of main arguments, 13, 15–18, 83, 97–98
online gaming and gambling, 116–117, 120–121, 126–127. See also internet addiction
online harassment
addiction to, 116
adolescents at increased risk, 119, 122, 383–384
on disability grounds, 136
generally, 24
women at increased risk, 366
online marketplace businesses, 88–89, 427–428
online platforms. See platforms
online shopping, addiction to, 116, 121
Ortega y Gasset, José, 433–434
phishing, 209
platforms
advertising on, 75–76, 390–391
children’s welfare protection duties. See children’s welfare protection
constitutional rights application to. See constitutional rights, horizontal application
labour precarity and. See Brazil, technologically-driven labour precarity
liabilities, 116, 163–169, 172–173
online marketplace businesses, 88–89, 427–428
power of, 49–50, 121, 174
self-regulation by. See self-regulation by tech industry
social media platforms. See social media
social technology initiatives on, 429–430
tasks performed by, 163 See also names of particular platforms.
Political Advertising Regulation (EU), 329–331
political parties, dissolution of, 184–185, 191–192
pornographic material, 72, 116, 121, 247–248
positive state obligations
freedom of expression protection. See freedom of expression, positive state obligations
generally, 160–161
for hate speech control, 186
precarious workers in Brazil. See Brazil, technologically-driven labour precarity
precedents theory, 83–84
press freedom, 182–184, 192–197, 316
principles of law, 96–97
privacy and data protection rights
biometric data processing, 34, 36–38, 289–290, 350
Cambridge Analytica scandal, 200, 209
Convention 108+ (Council of Europe), 25, 32
COVID apps. See contact-tracing apps in COVID-19 pandemic
digital self-determination right, 22, 24, 38
drone use control. See drone use control
European law framework, 286–289, 324–325
GDPR. See General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR)
horizontal effect of EU law, 76–79
microtargeting and. See microtargeting
non-coherence theory applied to, 105–107
personal data as good, 268–269
right to be forgotten. See right to be forgotten
right to explanation of decisions, 35, 61
surveillance by law enforcement agents, 142–143
private/public law distinction, 62–64
problematic use of the internet. See internet addiction
procedural natural law (Fuller), 44–45
profiling. See microtargeting
proportionality principle
disinformation control context, 48–49
generally, 264–265, 306
hate speech control context, 189–192
limitation clauses and, 40
orders to block or remove content, 218, 246, 253–254
political speech restrictions and, 181, 183–184, 192–193, 196
public order control, 55–56
public/private law distinction, 62–64, 280, 282
Raz, Joseph, 62
Reed, Chris, 94–95
Reigota, Marcos, 432
right to be forgotten
balancing with competing rights, 165, 246–247
Google Spain case (CJEU), 77–79, 93, 246–247
in South Korea, 52
status of, 25, 95–96
rights specific to digital domain. See digital human rights
Roma and Traveller communities, 418–419, 421
Rosa, Hartmut, 431–432
rule of law theories, 45–46, 50–51, 56, 278
Russia
disinformation dissemination by, 185
NGO activity restrictions, 186, 197
suppression of free speech in, 191
sameness of rights doctrine, 103–105. See also non-coherence theory of digital human rights
Santos-D’Amorim, Karen, 208–209
Sartre, Jean-Paul, 105
Schirach, Ferdinand von, 22
Scholz, Trebor, 424, 428–429
science and technology education for women and girls, 371
Sciulii, David, 59
self-censorship risks, 189–191, 288, 296, 299
self-regulation by tech industry
AI developers, 27–28, 253
democratic legitimacy concerns, 81, 107–108
disinformation control, 213–214, 234–240
drivers of, 59–60
by Facebook. See Facebook/Meta
freedom of expression concerns, 165–167, 171, 173–174
hate speech control, 165
state intervention in, 51–52
Shany, Yuval, 104
Singapore
political censorship in, 54
self-regulation by tech industry, 52
Singer, Paul, 424, 429–430
Slovakia, linguistic rights initiative, 421–422
Smartphones. See also internet addiction
addiction to, 113, 115, 118, 120
app-based businesses, 88–89, 427–428
COVID apps on. See contact-tracing apps in COVID-19 pandemic
school use bans, 133–134
Snowden, Edward, 142
social media. See also Facebook/Meta; X (formerly Twitter)
addiction to, 117–119
anonymity on, 185–186
bans of accounts, 58–60, 165, 170, 231–232, 256–257
children’s experiences on, 383–384
digital exclusion from, 374–375
disinformation on. See disinformation control; fake news
fake news on. See disinformation control
journalistic uses of, 182–184
‘Likes’ expressed on, 236, 316
positive state obligations respecting. See freedom of expression, positive state obligations
targeted communications on. See microtargeting
social platforms. See platforms
solidarity economy/social technology initiatives, 429–430
South Africa
Film and Publications Board, 54, 56
horizontal effect of constitutional rights, 67
riots (June 2021), 56
South Korea
internet addiction, public health response, 125
political censorship in, 54
right to be forgotten in, 52
Spain, Charter on Digital Rights, 23
state action doctrine (US), 69–70. See also constitutional rights, horizontal application
state regulation of the internet
in collaboration with non-state actors, 49–51
criminal law enforcement. See criminal law enforcement
design elements of healthy system, 51–56
disinformation, state responses, 213, 223–224
positive obligations. See positive state obligations
states’ unpreparedness for, 59
summary of main arguments, 12, 40–41
theoretical rationale, 42–47, 56–57
trust rationale, 47–49, 275–282
Stefano, Valerio de, 428
Stengers, Isabelle, 433
Stone, Julius, 83
Sturm, Douglas, 46–47
Sullivan, Clare, 106
Sunstein, Cass R., 80, 224
surveillance, aerial. See drone use control
surveillance by law enforcement agents, 142–143
Susi, Mart, 24–25, 232. See also non-coherence theory of digital human rights
Tache, Cristina Popa, 337
targeted communications. See microtargeting
telemedicine, 374
terrorism control, 55–56, 73–74
Teubner, Gunther, 59
third party effects of constitutional rights. See constitutional rights, horizontal application
Tiani, Vincenzo, 401
time-related concerns, 107–109. See also non-coherence theory of digital human rights
Toope, Stephen J., 46
transdisciplinary approach to human rights, 335–336
translation right, 61
Transparency and Targeting of Political Advertising Regulation (EU), 329–331
Traveller and Roma communities, 418–419, 421
Trump, Donald
‘fake news’ allegations by, 210, 310
Presidential election (2016), 80, 200, 210, 308
social media accounts, 58–60, 165, 170, 231–232, 238
trust rationale for technology regulation, 47–49, 275–282
Twitter. See X (formerly Twitter)
Ubuntu philosophy, 43
UNCRC (Convention on the Rights of the Child 1989), 20, 381–382, 387, 392, 398, 407, 411
UNESCO, 27, 32, 270, 371, 411
UNICEF, 53, 385
United Kingdom
Brexit referendum campaign, 80, 200, 308, 311
cybercrime in, 138
drone use control, 305
linguistic rights initiatives, 422
Ofqual algorithm controversy, 404
smartphone use bans in schools, 134
United Nations, 168
children’s welfare measures, 128, 135
digital divide, policies on, 368–372, 375–376, 379
Guiding Principles on Business and Human Rights, 60, 168, 346–347
Human Rights Council, 20, 27, 79, 104, 376
internet and human rights initiatives, 20–21, 29
Internet Governance Forum, 255
internet regulation by, 53
investment practices, instruments on, 346–348
linguistic rights initiatives, 409–412
United States
AI governance in, 28
Bill of Rights, 64
Capitol Hill riots (January 2021), 55, 59, 231–232
drone use control, 304–305
election manipulation concerns, 80, 200, 210, 308, 311, 322
‘EU law imperialism’ responses, 253–254
freedom of expression in online context, 58, 71–74, 96, 173, 248–252
hate speech control, 246
horizontal effect of constitutional rights, 69–70
Hurricane Katrina disaster, 433
smartphone addiction in, 113
smartphone use bans in schools, 134
United States–Mexico–Canada Agreement 2020, 75
Universal Declaration of Human Rights 1948
generally, 339, 347
international instruments inspired by, 20, 179
specific rights under, 298, 366–367, 431–432
unmanned aerial vehicles. See drone use control
user profiling. See microtargeting
Varennes, Fernand de, 423
Verma, Vijay, 207–208
Vermeulen, Mathias, 326
video game addiction, 116–117, 126–128, 136. See also internet addiction
virtual currencies, 87–88
VLOPS. See platforms
voice recognition technology, 289
Voorhof, Dirk, 187
vulnerable groups. See also digital divide
all internet users as, 121
children. See children’s welfare protection
in COVID-19 pandemic, 359, 417–419, 425–426, 433–434
disabled persons, 135–136, 298, 377, 405, 411–412
elderly persons. See elderly persons
harassment of. See online harassment
hate speech against. See hate speech control
intersectional vulnerabilities, 378
mentally disordered persons, 117–118, 122–123, 135–136
minority language users. See linguistic marginalisation in online education
precarious workers. See Brazil, technologically-driven labour precarity
summary of main arguments, 5, 355–359
UN instruments on, 347–348
women. See women
Wardle, Claire, 210
Warren, Samuel D., 105, 201–202
WeMoveEurope Foundation, 22, 34
WhatsApp, 314
whistleblower protection, 195
Wilson, Edward O., 336–337
women
digital access problems, 364–368, 378
law and policy responses, 368–372
hate speech against. See hate speech control
online harassment of. See online harassment
work, right to, 367, 431–432
workers, disconnection right for, 129–134
World Health Organization, 128, 272–273
World Trade Organization, 255
X (formerly Twitter)
advertising on, 75–76
disinformation control, 237–239
hate speech on, 73–74, 237
policy changes at, 171, 239, 251–252
Trump’s account, 58, 238
young persons, 113, 116, 118–119, 121–123, 383–384. See also children’s welfare protection
YouTube
disinformation control, 239–240
EU blocking order addressed to, 243
hate speech on, 73–74
Zanatta, Rafael, 428–429
Zittrain, Jonathan, 322
Zuboff, Shoshana, 285, 296
Zuckerberg, Mark, 235–236
Zufall, Frederike, 108

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  • Index
  • Edited by Tiina Pajuste, Tallinn University
  • Book: Human Rights in the Digital Domain
  • Online publication: 24 October 2025
  • Chapter DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/9781009606295.030
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  • Index
  • Edited by Tiina Pajuste, Tallinn University
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  • Online publication: 24 October 2025
  • Chapter DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/9781009606295.030
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  • Index
  • Edited by Tiina Pajuste, Tallinn University
  • Book: Human Rights in the Digital Domain
  • Online publication: 24 October 2025
  • Chapter DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/9781009606295.030
Available formats
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