Introduction
Ocean sustainability is vital to planetary and societal well-being, yet marine ecosystems face growing threats from climate change, pollution, and overexploitation. Addressing these issues requires not only scientific innovation but also an informed and engaged citizenry capable of making responsible decisions about the ocean’s future, ultimately contributing to a more ocean-literate society (Santoro et al., Reference Santoro, Santin, Scowcroft, Fauville and Tuddenham2017). Increasing ocean literacy — understood as the reciprocal influence between humans and the ocean (NOAA, 2024) — has become a strategic global priority. Initiatives such as the United Nations Decade of Ocean Science for Sustainable Development (2021–2030) stress the importance of transforming humanity’s relationship with the ocean through education and public engagement (UNESCO, 2021).
A major challenge highlighted by UNESCO’s Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission is the need for transdisciplinary and holistic educational strategies that not only build understanding of ocean issues but also foster behavioural change and ocean citizenship (Santoro et al., Reference Santoro, Santin, Scowcroft, Fauville and Tuddenham2017). Ocean citizenship extends beyond awareness, encompassing the values, attitudes, and actions that empower individuals and communities to take responsibility for the ocean and engage in its stewardship (Fletcher & Potts, Reference Fletcher and Potts2007; McKinley & Fletcher, Reference McKinley and Fletcher2012; Buchan et al., Reference Buchan, Evans, Pieraccini and Barr2023). Research shows that cultivating ocean literacy from an early age can lead to lasting behavioural shifts, equipping future generations to adopt sustainable practices and advocate for marine conservation (Boaventura et al., Reference Boaventura, Neves, Santos, Pereira, Luís, Monteiro, Cartaxana, Hawkins, Caldeira and Ponces de Carvalho2021; Garcia-Vazquez et al., Reference Garcia-Vazquez, Palacios-Abrantes and Vazquez2022; Mioni, Reference Mioni2022; Guest et al., Reference Guest, Lotze and Wallace2015).
Various strategies have been employed to advance ocean literacy, from formal frameworks like the USA’s Next Generation Science Standards (NGSS) to informal approaches such as field trips, public engagement, simulations, and storytelling — all shown to enhance awareness and promote behavioural change (Freitas et al., Reference Freitas, Lima, Silva and Monteiro2023; Guest et al., Reference Guest, Lotze and Wallace2015; Winn et al., Reference Winn, Johnson and Klett2006). Key resources — including UNESCO’s Ocean Literacy for All Toolkit (Santoro et al., Reference Santoro, Santin, Scowcroft, Fauville and Tuddenham2017), the NMEA Handbook for Increasing Ocean Literacy (Halversen et al., Reference Halversen, Schoedinger and Payne2021), and A New Blue Curriculum (IOC-UNESCO, 2022) — offer structured guidance for integrating ocean concepts into teaching and strengthening students’ connection to marine environments.
Despite their promise, these initiatives face significant obstacles to consistent implementation in formal education. Key barriers include the lack of suitable teaching materials, inadequate teacher training, and limited curricular integration of ocean literacy, particularly in primary education (Freitas et al., Reference Freitas, Venzo, Bellgrove and Francis2024). Furthermore, the absence of robust assessment frameworks hampers efforts to evaluate long-term impacts on student behaviour and environmental engagement, reducing the scalability and adaptability of current models (Asikin et al., Reference Asikin, Suwono, Sumitro and Dharmawan2025).
The lack of evaluation frameworks and challenges in assessing behavioural change have also been noted by Fauville et al. (Reference Fauville, Payne, Marrero, Lantz-Andersson and Crouch2019), Kelly et al. (Reference Kelly, Fleming, Pecl, Richter and Bonn2020), and Kelemen-Finan et al. (Reference Kelemen-Finan, Scheuch and Winter2018). Without effective monitoring tools, the long-term impact of ocean literacy initiatives on citizenship and environmental action remains unclear. However, educational models incorporating citizen science and experiential learning offer a promising alternative by engaging students in hands-on activities that link theory to real-world marine issues (Bonney et al., Reference Bonney, Phillips, Ballard and Enck2016; Yang et al., Reference Yang, Shein, Lin and Lin2024). These approaches not only enhance scientific understanding but also foster agency and responsibility — core elements of ocean citizenship.
Building on this foundation, the pedagogical model developed by Schio and Reis (Reference Schio and Reis2024a) (Figure 1) offers a structured, locally adaptable framework that promotes ocean citizenship in primary education through citizen science. Detailed in their earlier work, the model integrates conceptual elements — grounded in systems thinking, ocean literacy, and citizenship theory — with practical components focused on hands-on science and youth activism. By engaging teachers and students in coastal monitoring activities, the model bridges theoretical understanding with real-world application.
Pedagogical model for promoting ocean citizenship in primary education.
The model’s conceptual component encompasses four core dimensions — training, experiences, involvement, and activism — each associated with specific actions and competencies. To support implementation, the model offers practical tools that guide educators through its processes. Its practical component is structured around six activities within a coastal monitoring project: (1) contextualising ocean issues, (2) conducting three field outings, (3) analysing field data, (4) documenting results, (5) sharing findings, and (6) initiating school or community interventions. Teacher training serves as the bridge between both components, ensuring educators are prepared to apply the model and embed ocean citizenship into the school curriculum (Figure 1).
This study examines teachers’ experiences implementing a pedagogical model grounded in citizen science and coastal monitoring, focusing on its role in fostering ocean citizenship, environmental awareness, and interdisciplinary practices in primary education. Conducted as a pilot project in 10 Portuguese public schools during the 2021/2022 academic year, the research addresses the question: What are teachers’ assessments of the educational potential and limitations of this model for promoting ocean citizenship after its implementation in their primary education classrooms? A complementary study by Schio and Reis (Reference Schio and Reis2024b) underscores the model’s impact on students, highlighting gains in environmental awareness, active engagement, and responsible behaviours, while also noting the need to strengthen components related to activism and community involvement.
Materials and Methods
The development of the pedagogical model was guided by phases 1 and 2 of the Design-Based Research (DBR) method, as detailed by Schio and Reis (Reference Schio and Reis2024a). DBR follows a four-phase cycle — diagnosis, planning, implementation, and evaluation — where knowledge and educational strategies are developed iteratively (Barab & Squire, Reference Barab and Squire2004). In the first two phases, previously described by Schio and Reis (Reference Schio and Reis2024a), the authors defined the theoretical and methodological foundations of the model (phase 1) and planned its implementation within school contexts (phase 2) (Figure 2).
Actions carried out in each phase of the design cycle for the development and implementation of the pedagogical model.
This article reports on phases 3 and 4 of the design cycle, focusing on the implementation and evaluation of the pedagogical model through teachers’ experiences. Implementation followed three key stages: (1) selection of schools and teachers, (2) teacher training, and (3) application of the model’s educational activities. In phase 4, teachers’ experiences were assessed using qualitative methods, including focus groups and semi-structured questionnaires (Figure 2), detailed in Section 2.4.
The diagram shown in figure 2 presents a structured overview of the actions involved in each phase of the design cycle during the development and implementation of the pedagogical model, showcasing the whole process applying during the design cycle.
Selection of schools and teachers
Since this was a pilot project, the decision was made to test the pedagogical model with Science and Maths teachers from Blue Schools — a programme run by the Portuguese Ministry of the Economy and the Sea that certifies schools committed to fostering ocean literacy within the curriculum (https://escolaazul.pt/). Pre-registration took place from June 14 to 30, 2021, through an online form published on the Blue School program’s website, social media, and mailing list. A total of 40 teachers initially registered to participate, but only 23 teachers from 10 public schools along the Portuguese coast (2 in the north, 5 in the central region, and 3 in the south) confirmed their participation in the training.
Teacher training
Teacher training, as a core dimension of the pedagogical model (Figure 1), equips educators with the knowledge needed to integrate ocean literacy systemically and across subjects within the curriculum. This stage is essential, as teachers are the primary agents implementing the model’s educational activities in classrooms. The training workshops, outlined by Schio and Reis (Reference Schio and Reis2024a) during the model’s planning phase, were structured to align with the knowledge required to implement its six core activities (Figures 3 and 4). The programme also defined the specific competencies to be developed, establishing clear links between the model’s activities, training content, and teacher skill development (Figure 4).
Diagram of the programme content for teacher training.
Correlation between the educational activities of the pedagogical model, the training workshops and the competencies to be developed by teachers after the training.
Conducted in October 2021, the teacher training comprised 50 hours — 25 synchronous and 25 asynchronous — combining face-to-face and online sessions in a blended learning format. Zoom was used for live instruction, while Google Classroom supported the distribution of materials, session recordings, and submission of teacher assignments.
Application of the pedagogical model
Between November 2021 and June 2022, 23 teachers implemented the model with 26 primary classes — 20 from 5th grade and 6 from 6th grade — reaching 543 students aged 09 – 11. Fieldwork was conducted across diverse aquatic environments, including 12 coastal beaches, one river beach, and two estuary beaches. Teachers adapted the activities to their local contexts, promoting hands-on learning and strengthening ocean literacy. They were also encouraged to develop interdisciplinary projects in collaboration with colleagues, integrating subjects such as Science, Mathematics, Geography, Portuguese, the Arts, and others to connect theoretical content with real-world issues and foster critical thinking and collaboration.
Evaluation
The evaluation of teachers’ experiences in implementing the pedagogical model was conducted using qualitative methods, including three semi-structured questionnaires administered at different stages of the process (the questions for each questionnaire are detailed in the corresponding appendices):
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1. After teacher training (October 2021): Focused on teachers’ preparedness, confidence in applying the model, and anticipated challenges (Appendix A).
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2. Following the first field trip (March 2022): Collected feedback on the initial application of the model, logistical aspects, and student engagement (Appendix B).
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3. At the end of the school year (June 2022): Gathered overall reflections on the implementation process, lessons learned, and suggestions for improving the model (Appendix C).
In addition to the questionnaires, an online session was held in the middle of school year (March 2022), during which teachers were invited to share their experiences. All participating teachers presented their reflections in three key areas:
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Field trips and student engagement,
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Analysis of results conducted at school,
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Activities or actions developed with students based on project data, including interdisciplinary workclasses, activism initiatives, and project dissemination within the school and community.
Teachers were encouraged to highlight successful aspects, challenges faced, and adjustments made during the implementation process.
Given the small sample size (n = 23), a process evaluation lens was adopted to ensure meaningful interpretation of the data. Such an approach is particularly relevant in pilot studies, where the aim is less about measuring large-scale impacts and more about generating insights to refine the model and prepare it for future iterations. This approach prioritises understanding the quality of implementation, contextual influences, and the practical lessons that can inform the future adaptation and scalability of the model.
A thematic content analysis was used to examine the qualitative data, combining deductive and inductive approaches. The initial coding framework was partially theory-driven, informed by the model’s conceptual pillars — training, experiences, involvement, and activism — and supported by key constructs in environmental education, such as ocean citizenship (Fletcher & Potts, Reference Fletcher and Potts2007), transformative learning (Mezirow, Reference Mezirow1997), and systems thinking (Sterling, Reference Sterling2001). This framework guided the creation of preliminary codes like “critical awareness,” “interdisciplinary integration,” and “student agency.”
Simultaneously, the analysis remained open to emergent codes from the data, allowing for refinement based on recurring themes in teachers’ narratives — for example, “logistical constraints” and “community engagement.” The coding proceeded in three stages: open coding of a subset to test theoretical fit, axial coding to group related concepts, and selective coding to establish the six core thematic categories presented in Figure 5.
Categories of analysis used to assess teachers’ experiences in implementing the pedagogical model and their perceptions of its educational impact on students.
The following section presents the results for each category in detail, supported by selected teacher quotes that illustrate key findings, reflect diverse perspectives, and offer deeper insight into the strengths and challenges encountered during the model’s implementation.
Results and discussion
Acquired competences
Teachers identified the practical and experimental aspects of the model as the most impactful moments for students. Field trips (n = 19), interdisciplinary activities (n = 6), and water analysis (n = 5) were highlighted as particularly significant (Figure 6). This finding aligns with Schio and Reis (Reference Schio and Reis2024b), where students reported that hands-on experiences and outdoor activities significantly enhanced their understanding of marine environments and contributed to skill development in coastal monitoring.
Teachers’ opinion of students’ most significant learning.
Teachers considered the opportunity to conduct activities outside of school with their students as an added value, as it enriches the educational experience by connecting learning to its local context, bringing more meaning and involvement to the educational process. One teacher noted:
‘For me as a teacher, this experience has reinforced the importance of carrying out activities outside of the classroom and confirmed that these activities are an asset for motivating students and for creating interdisciplinary projects in which students see an interconnection and contextualisation of the content.’
Interactive educational experiences in coastal environments have demonstrated how investigative and citizen science activities can broaden students’ interest in and understanding of the marine ecosystem (Boaventura et al., Reference Boaventura, Neves, Santos, Pereira, Luís, Monteiro, Cartaxana, Hawkins, Caldeira and Ponces de Carvalho2021; Gillooly, Reference Mioni2022; Severin et al., Reference Severin, Akpetou, Annasawmy, Asuquo, Beckman, Benomar, Jaya-Ram, Malouli, Mees, Monteiro, Ndwiga, Neves Silva, Nubi, Sim, Sohou, Shau-Hwai, Woo, Zizah, Buysse and Catarino2023; Winks et al., Reference Winks, Ward, Zilch and Woodley2020). These activities strengthen the personal connection with the ocean, increasing learners’ admiration, curiosity, and sense of responsibility and belonging (Murray et al., Reference Murray, Breheny, Cumming, Erueti, Mooney, Nash, Severinsen and Shanly2023).
When asked if the educational experience had fostered new competencies that showed the development of ocean citizenship in the students, 100% of the teachers (n = 23) confirmed that it had. The competencies identified were grouped into four main categories systematised in Table 1: 1) New knowledge; 2) Critical perspective; 3) Socio-environmental responsibility; and 4) Activism.
Competences identified by teachers in their students that contribute to the development of ocean citizenship
Alongside student learning, teachers also demonstrated notable professional growth through the implementation of the pedagogical model. As outlined in Figure 3, they not only conveyed new ocean-related content but also developed competencies in conducting all stages of the coastal monitoring project — collecting, analysing, and discussing data with students. Additionally, they engaged in interdisciplinary collaboration and successfully integrated content into the school curriculum. These findings align with Capps & Crawford (Reference Capps and Crawford2013), who highlight that teachers who undergo inquiry-based science education (IBSE) training develop a deeper understanding of investigative teaching methods and become more confident in applying them in the classroom.
Activism-related competencies were less developed compared to other areas. Although intervention actions were planned to address issues observed during coastal monitoring, 63% of teachers were unable to implement them — primarily due to time constraints. Among the 37% who did carry out such actions, most limited their efforts to internal dissemination through school-based initiatives and social media, rather than direct community engagement. As this was the model’s first year of implementation, the demands of coordinating multiple activities alongside existing responsibilities, as well as the logistical complexity of organising external actions, likely contributed to these limitations. Nonetheless, these challenges are expected to diminish as the model becomes more integrated into schools’ pedagogical planning and gains institutional support.
Motivation and engagement
All participating teachers (n = 23) reported feeling motivated and confident in implementing the proposed educational activities. Nonetheless, a few expressed specific needs: two teachers indicated they might require assistance during fieldwork, and five felt they needed additional support to address ocean-related content. The main positive aspects identified were: overall satisfaction with the experience (n = 15), high student engagement and motivation (n = 12), and the practical application of knowledge (n = 7) (Figure 7). Teachers also highlighted the value of fostering students’ environmental awareness and encouraging behavioural change (n = 3), as well as the social and emotional benefits of peer interaction and direct contact with natural environments (n = 2).
Positive aspects highlighted by teachers in their experience of implementing the educational activities of the pedagogical model.
Several teachers’ reports reinforced the importance of practical activities in contact with the environment, identifying them as factors that enhance both their own and their students’ motivation and engagement, as well as promoting greater environmental awareness. These findings are consistent with the results reported by Schio and Reis (Reference Schio and Reis2024b), where students highlighted hands-on activities, such as coastal monitoring, as the most engaging and impactful components of the project. Students expressed that direct interaction with the environment fostered a stronger emotional connection with marine issues and motivated them to adopt more responsible behaviours.
This perspective was echoed by one teacher, who remarked:
‘It was very good. The kids took part with enthusiasm and interest. As positive aspects, I’d like to mention the students’ involvement in the tasks, their contact with the sea and the beach in a different way to what they’re used to. I think they started to notice details they hadn’t realised, such as the importance of water quality.’
Teachers’ experiences implementing the model not only enhanced their pedagogical skills but also enabled them to actively involve students in environmental investigations within their communities. Research supports the effectiveness of practical, inquiry-based approaches — such as citizen science — in improving teacher motivation, educational quality, and student engagement (Aristeidou et al., Reference Aristeidou, Lorke and Ismail2022; Capps & Crawford, Reference Capps and Crawford2013; Johnson et al., Reference Whitfield, Beauchamp, Boyd, Burslem, Byg, Colledge, Cutler, Didena, Dougill, Foody, Godbold, Hazenbosch, Hirons, Ifejika Speranza, Jew, Lacambra, Mkwambisi, Moges, Morel and White2019; Lakeman Fraser et al., Reference Lakeman Fraser and Richardson2023). Peasland et al. (Reference Peasland, Henri, Morrell and Scott2021) further emphasise that students with prior fieldwork exposure tend to show greater motivation, highlighting the importance of early, hands-on engagement in fostering interest in marine environments.
These dynamics were evident in students’ active involvement and motivation during the coastal monitoring activities. As they explored the environment using research tools, students became aware of the volume of litter on the beaches. This first-hand observation deepened their understanding of marine pollution and the complexities involved in addressing it. It also underscored the importance of individual responsibility, reinforcing their potential as local agents of change — an insight echoed by teachers’ reflections presented in Table 1.
These findings align with the experiential learning framework proposed by Yang et al. (Reference Yang, Shein, Lin and Lin2024), which highlights the role of fieldwork-based marine science education in promoting environmental awareness, scientific literacy, and pro-environmental behaviours. Their study shows that direct engagement with coastal ecosystems helps students perceive ecological issues more holistically, deepens their sense of responsibility, and fosters active participation in citizen science. By integrating field-based learning into formal education, both models demonstrate that immersive experiences in natural environments are essential to cultivating ocean stewardship and fostering long-term behavioural change.
While a previous study (Schio & Reis, Reference Schio and Reis2024b) mapped these student-centred outcomes to the eight dimensions of ocean citizenship proposed by McKinley et al., (Reference McKinley, Burdon and Shellock2023) (knowledge and understanding, identity and values, responsibility, participation, emotional connection, agency, systems thinking, and justice), the present research expands this analysis by highlighting how teachers perceive and mediate these dimensions in classroom practice. Their experiences reveal that ocean citizenship is not only an outcome of student engagement, but also a pedagogical construct actively shaped by teacher decisions, values, and strategies.
For example, teachers observed a marked increase in students’ knowledge and understanding of ocean systems through field-based inquiry and data analysis, along with a stronger emotional connection to the ocean fostered by experiential learning at the beach — findings consistent with Schio and Reis (Reference Schio and Reis2024b). However, new insights emerged regarding systems thinking and agency. Teachers noted that facilitating discussions on the causes and consequences of pollution helped students connect local environmental problems — and their own behaviours — to broader global patterns. Furthermore, they reported that allowing students to take ownership of specific actions, even small-scale initiatives, strengthened their sense of empowerment and responsibility, as illustrated in the teachers’ statements presented in Table 2.
Mapping theoretical constructs to emergent themes from teacher data
These findings underscore the central role of teachers in fostering ocean citizenship by creating learning environments that cultivate not only knowledge, but also responsibility, agency, and action. When examined through theoretical lenses such as transformative learning (Mezirow, Reference Mezirow1997), civic ecology education (Krasny & Tidball, Reference Krasny and Tidball2015), and experiential learning (Kolb, Reference Kolb1984), the themes emerging from teacher reflections offer valuable insight into how pedagogical practice facilitates meaningful change. Table 2 synthesises these connections by linking representative teacher insights to key theoretical constructs, reinforcing the model’s grounding in interdisciplinary and participatory approaches to education.
Difficulties encountered
Although this was the teachers’ first time implementing the project, most reported no difficulties in teaching ocean content or applying the coastal monitoring method. The main challenges identified were logistical and external to classroom practice. Across three evaluation stages — before, during, and after implementation — six recurring difficulties were reported: securing transport for field trips, lack of monitoring materials, limited time in the school schedule, adverse weather conditions, limited availability of support staff, and water quality analysis. Additionally, three other difficulties were cited, but they only appeared in two of the three evaluations. Notably, five teachers indicated they encountered no difficulties during the activities (Table 3).
Main difficulties experienced by teachers
Despite the challenges, none of the reported difficulties prevented the successful implementation of the model’s educational activities. Teachers showed strong commitment and resourcefulness, often developing creative solutions to logistical barriers. Many schools already had some required materials in their science or maths labs, while others supported the purchase of additional items. In cases with limited institutional support, teachers sourced materials from students or collaborated with colleagues from other subjects. Some even purchased equipment themselves — such as shovels, sieves, magnifying glasses, and compasses — to ensure the activities could proceed.
While over a third of teachers (n = 9) reported that students faced no major difficulties, the most frequently mentioned challenge was managing student behaviour during field trips (n = 4). The excitement and distraction were attributed to the novelty of the beach setting and students’ limited prior experience with outdoor group activities, especially due to COVID-19 restrictions. Additional difficulties included working with field data (n = 3), integrating content across subjects (n = 2), and maintaining focus (n = 2). Less frequent issues (n = 1) involved completing field forms, time constraints, and identifying natural elements such as waves or clouds (Figure 8).
Aspects that students found most challenging according to teachers’ observations.
Despite the challenges, teachers’ motivation and commitment were key to the successful implementation of the educational activities. Their adaptability, creative problem-solving, and collaboration fostered active student and family engagement — skills that are essential for advancing innovative and high-quality marine education in contemporary school contexts.
Interdisciplinarity and curricular compatibility
The integration of the project’s content into the 5th and 6th-grade curriculum (ages 9 to 11) was another positive outcome, demonstrating the model’s alignment with curricular goals and its potential to embed ocean literacy and citizenship across disciplines. As one teacher observed:
‘The coastal monitoring project can serve as a catalyst for developing interdisciplinary projects, as it addresses a significant topic that allows work to be conducted within various curriculum subjects. For example, Portuguese in text production; Natural Sciences, due to the topic’s relevance; Citizenship and Development, focusing on the importance of preserving the oceans; Maths, in the statistical analysis of collected data and the implementation of methods on the beach; Visual and Technological Education in poster production and illustration work.’
Due to the scientific nature of the educational activities and the qualifications of the teachers, Maths and Sciences were the subjects most utilised throughout the coastal monitoring project, followed by Citizenship, Portuguese, Visual and Technological Education (VTE), Information and Communication Technology (ICT), History and Geography of Portugal (HGP), English, Physical Education, and Music Education, along with some specific workshops developed in the schools (Figure 9).
Integration of the content of the coastal monitoring programme with the 5th and 6th grade school curriculum.
Some 6th-grade teachers (students aged 10 to 11) reported difficulty integrating the content into the school curriculum but managed to do so in collaboration with other teachers. One teacher explained, ‘We worked in pedagogical teams to see how it was possible for the 6th grade to tackle this issue. We linked the content we were teaching — such as food, microplastics in food, the impacts of pollution on food, wellbeing and health, and food conservation — with the curriculum. In history, we taught about tsunamis and the transport of slaves, creating a learning scenario from it all.’
Examples of interdisciplinary work shared by teachers during a year-end videoconference illustrated diverse ways the programme was integrated into other subjects, workshops, and school projects. This collaborative exchange also generated interest among other educators, fostering greater engagement for future editions. Such involvement is essential to ensuring the long-term sustainability of the model within school communities.
A notable finding was the teachers’ adaptation of coastal monitoring activities to nearby aquatic environments such as lagoons, rivers and estuaries. This highlights the model’s flexibility and its applicability beyond coastal areas, supporting broader curricular integration. Such adaptability is critical for expanding ocean education in diverse geographic contexts, advancing the goals of the blue school curriculum (IOC-UNESCO, 2022), and promoting meaningful learning experiences that lead to behavioural change and action for ocean sustainability (McKinley & Burdon, Reference McKinley and Burdon2020).
Community and family interaction
When asked whether students had shared their learning experiences with their families, 82% of teachers responded positively. They cited examples of family involvement, including helping gather field materials, assisting with tasks, participating in a field trip, and supporting transportation costs. The following two teacher testimonials illustrate the feedback received from students’ families:
‘The parents have shown their satisfaction with the experience and learning more than once. On the day of the open school, they thanked me, and some offered to help with any action to be taken.’
‘The feedback from parents was very good. Parents sent me emails thanking me and saying that the students were motivated. Parents were invited to take part in the last field trip.’
Additional forms of engagement by parents, students, and school staff included exhibitions, project presentations, sharing content via Padlet, school newspaper articles, blogs, social media posts, and parent meetings. This triangulation of communication between school, students, and families illustrates the potential of a bottom-up approach to fostering ocean citizenship, positioning students as knowledge multipliers and agents of change within their communities.
Research underscores the important role children play as agents of change in advancing sustainability. Their capacity to learn, advocate, and engage in initiatives can influence family behaviours and generate broader social impact (Hugo, Reference Hugo and Séraphin2022). Zampas’ (Reference Zampas2013) children’s influence and confidence model explains how children’s self-confidence shapes parental perceptions and decision-making. This intergenerational dynamic supports the formation of lasting sustainable habits and values within families (Carrigan et al., Reference Carrigan, Wells and Athwal2023; Ritch & Brownlie, Reference Ritch and Brownlie2016). In this context, Von Braun (Reference Von Braun, Battro, Léna, Sorondo and von Braun2017) highlights the need for transformative education with an emphasis on exploration, engagement, and action, to empower children to actively participate and lead changes towards sustainability.
Adjustments and improvements
As a teacher-led pilot project, the implementation of the pedagogical model had a notably positive impact on participating schools. Despite some challenges, all teachers completed the training, and 87% (n = 20) expressed their intention to continue the project in future school years. Regarding proposed improvements, 29% (n = 7) aimed to enhance interdisciplinarity, 17% (n = 4) wished to expand the project to more classes, another 17% (n = 4) planned to maintain its current format, and 9% (n = 2) suggested reducing the number of field trips due to logistical constraints. A few teachers emphasised the need for broader student and school community engagement to increase the project’s reach and impact (Figure 10).
What teachers would do differently in future school years.
At the end of the school year, all participating teachers (100%) expressed confidence in the potential to build a community of practice and establish a Network of Ocean Guardians within the school system over the medium to long term. To support this goal, they proposed several strategies: expanding the project nationally, including inland schools; aligning with existing programmes such as Blue School and Eco-Schools; creating a digital platform for data sharing; increasing interschool collaboration; integrating the project into annual curriculum plans; allocating school time and resources; acquiring additional water testing kits and transport funding; involving local authorities; and strengthening family engagement.
These suggestions offer valuable input for refining the pedagogical model and enhancing its long-term impact on ocean citizenship within school communities. This process aligns with the iterative nature of Design-Based Research (DBR), which involves ongoing cycles of testing, evaluation, and revision to improve both the educational prototype and the learning system it supports (Ponte et al., Reference Ponte, Carvalho, Mata-Pereira and Quaresma2016; Gravemeijer & Cobb, Reference Gravemeijer, Cobb, Plomp and Nieveen2013). As such, the model’s evolution is envisioned as a dynamic, inclusive, and co-constructed journey that will be continuously shaped through practice.
To ensure the model’s long-term viability and integration into school routines, proposed improvements must respond directly to the challenges identified by teachers. One frequently cited concern was the difficulty of organising three field trips, due to transport and time constraints. In response, several teachers recommended reducing this to two visits, complemented by in-school alternatives such as simulations or digital tools — an adjustment that balances pedagogical goals with practical realities. Similarly, while the model encourages community engagement, only a minority (37%) carried out activism beyond the classroom, citing barriers like lack of time, support, or confidence. To address this, the inclusion of simplified and accessible activism formats — such as class-based campaigns or online awareness actions — could increase teacher adherence. Grounding these recommendations in the teachers’ experiences enhances the credibility and applicability of the model’s ongoing refinement.
Overall assessment
To consolidate the analysis of teachers’ experiences, Figure 11 synthesises the main strengths, limitations, and improvement suggestions identified. It provides a strategic overview to guide future adaptations and support the model’s continued effectiveness in promoting ocean citizenship and interdisciplinary practices in school.
Systematisation of the pedagogical model’s potential, limitations, and suggestions for improvement.
Conclusions
The pedagogical model for promoting ocean citizenship in primary education proved effective in enhancing teaching practices and engaging students through citizen science and hands-on activities. It fostered interdisciplinary approaches, critical thinking, and increased awareness of marine conservation. Despite logistical challenges, the strong commitment of educators and support from families contributed to a collaborative learning environment.
Beyond these practical outcomes, the study offers theoretical insights into how ocean citizenship can be meaningfully cultivated in schools. Grounded in experiential and transformative learning theories, the model nurtures students’ ecological identity and agency, highlighting its relevance for advancing “blue” curricula and contributing to global efforts such as the Ocean Decade and the 2030 Agenda. The study underscores the value of integrating environmental citizenship into national curricula and calls for further research on its long-term effects across educational stages.
As this was a small-scale pilot study, the findings should be viewed as preliminary but valuable for refining the model and informing future applications. The results also point to critical success factors — such as teacher motivation and student engagement — as well as barriers, including logistical constraints and limited opportunities for activism beyond the classroom. Future efforts should therefore focus on adapting the model for broader dissemination, strengthening its integration across educational levels, and developing strategies that enable sustainable activism and community engagement.
Acknowledgements
We deeply thank the schools, teachers, students, and supporting institutions for their invaluable contributions and dedication, which were crucial for the success and enrichment of this research on ocean citizenship.
Financial support
This research was funded by a Ph.D. fellowship from FCT — Portuguese Foundation for Science and Technology, grant number 2022.10641.BD, and by National Funds through FCT — Portuguese Foundation for Science and Technology, I.P., under the scope of UIDEF — Unidade de Investigação e Desenvolvimento em Educação e Formação, UIDB/04107/2020, https://doi.org/10.54499/UIDB/04107/2020.
Ethical standards
The study was conducted in accordance with the Declaration of Helsinki, and approved by the Ethics Committee of Instituto de Educação, Universidade de Lisboa (on the 26 of January 2022).
Appendix A — Post-Teacher Training Evaluation Questionnaire (October 2021)
Appendix B — Post-First Field Trip Evaluation Questionnaire (March 2022)
Appendix C — End of School Year Evaluation Questionnaire (June 2022)
Author Biographies
Caroline Schio: Education history: Oceanography degree from the University of Vale do Itajaí - Brazil, Post-graduated degree in Fisheries Economics and Management from the University of Barcelona, Master’s degree in Agroecosystems from the Federal University of Santa Catarina – Brazil and PhD Student in Science Education at the University of Lisbon. Career history: 13 years coordinating the Monitoramento Mirim Costeiro Program with elementary school students, 5 years as the president of the Monitoramento Mirim Costeiro Institute, and 2 years working on the Maçarico Ocean Literacy program of the Colab + ATLANTIC in Portugal.
Pedro Reis: Education history: In addition to his PhD (U. Lisboa, 2004) and MEd (U. Lisboa, 1997) in education, he holds a BSc (U. Lisboa, 1988) degree in biology. Career history: Prior to his work as a professor, he worked as a science teacher in elementary and secondary schools. Nowadays, he coordinates the Research Group on Didactics at the “Instituto de Educação, Universidade de Lisboa” (Portugal), the PhD programme in Science Education and the Master programme in Innovation in Education.
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