¹ Siglin, Doug, “International Assistance: New Act for a New World,” World View 7 (Fall 1994): 35.Google Scholar In 1994 the Clinton administration submitted to Congress a comprehensive new bill, the Peace, Prosperity and Democracy Act of 1994, to replace the Foreign Assistance Act of 1961, as Amended.

² The Church in the Modern World (#9) in Walsh, Michael and Davies, Brian, eds., Proclaiming Justice & Peace: Papal Documents from “Rerum Novarum” through “Centesimus Annus” (Mystic, CT: Twenty-Third, 1991).Google Scholar Numbers in parentheses refer to paragraphs in that edition. All further citations from papal documents will be taken from this source, unless otherwise noted.

³ Examination of the very different social contexts of women in different parts of the world, while essential to the realization of women's full participation in society and culture, lies beyond the scope of this paper. Nevertheless, the following discussion includes indications of where such differences arise and provides in endnotes resources for studying them.

⁴ World's Women Data Sheet (Washington, DC: Population Reference Bureau in collaboration with UNICEF, 1985).Google Scholar

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⁷ For this discussion of the dimensions of gender bias, I am deeply indebted to the work of Jodi L. Jacobson, particularly her Worldwatch Paper 110 which presents a clear analysis of the dimensions and implications of gender bias in development efforts. See Jacobson, Jodi L., Gender Bias: Roadblock to Sustainable Development, Worldwatch Paper 110 (Washington, DC: Worldwatch Institute, 09 1992).Google Scholar

⁸ The New Catholic Encyclopedia, s.v. “Sexism,” by M. A. Farley.

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¹⁰ Ibid., 10. Jacobson notes that in areas where access to resources is particularly distorted, such as in education, women tended to fall behind men. The gender gap in literacy, for example, actually grew during the decades of economic growth.

¹¹ Ibid., 13. Jacobson refers her reader to several sources for additional evidence of this trend, including Carr, Marilyn, “Technologies for Rural Women: Impact and Dissemination” in Ahmed, Iftikhar, ed., Technology and Rural Women: Conceptual and Empirical Issues (London: George Allen and Unwin, 1985).Google Scholar

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¹³ U.N., Women: Challenges to the Year2000, 40.Google Scholar

¹⁴ Meera Chatterjee, Indian Women: Their Health and Productivity; and Government of India, Census Commissioner, Registrar General, Census of India, Provisional Population Totals, Paper One of 1991 (New Delhi, 1991).Google Scholar Cited in Jacobson, , Gender Bias, 14.Google Scholar

¹⁵ George Acsadi and Gwendolyn Johnson-Acsadi, “Safe Motherhood in South Asia: Sociocultural and Demographic Aspects of Maternal Health,” background paper prepared for the Safe Motherhood Conference, Lahore, Pakistan, 1987. Cited in Jacobson, , Gender Bias, 15.Google Scholar

¹⁶ Agarwal, Bina, “Neither Sustenance nor Sustainability: Agricultural Strategies, Ecological Degradation and Indian Women in Poverty” in Agarwal, Bina, ed., Structures of Patriarchy: State, Community, and Household in Modernising Asia (London: Zed Books, 1988).Google Scholar Cited in Jacobson, , Gender Bias, 15.Google Scholar

¹⁷ For a variety of articles on related issues by theologians, see Carr, Anne and Fiorenza, Elisabeth Schüssler, eds., Women, Work and Poverty, Concilium 194 (Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark, 1987).Google Scholar For perspectives from those involved in development, see Vickers, Jeanne, Women and the World Economic Crisis (Atlantic Highlands, NJ: Zed Books, 1991)Google Scholar, and U.N., Women: Challenges to the Year 2000.

¹⁸ For a more complete discussion, see Fischer, Clare B., “Liberating Work” in Weidman, Judith L., ed., Christian Feminism: Visions of a New Humanity (San Francisco: Harper & Row, 1984), esp. 124–34.Google Scholar

¹⁹ Jacobson, , Gender Bias, 17.Google Scholar

²⁰ U.N., Women: Challenges to the Year 2000, 39.Google Scholar

²¹ United Nations, The World's Women, 1970-1990: Trends and Statistics, prepared by the Statistical Office of the Department of International Economic and Social Affairs and the Division for the Advancement of Women (New York, 1991), 85.Google Scholar Cited in U.N., Women: Challenges to the Year 2000, 39.Google Scholar

²² Ibid.

²³ See Shirley Nuss, in collaboration with Denti, Ettore and Viry, David, Women in the World of Work: Statistical Analysis and Projections to the Year 2000, Women, Work and Development 18 (Geneva: International Labour Office, 1989), esp. 14–19.Google Scholar

²⁴ Agarwal, Binaet al., Engendering Adjustment for the 1990s: Report of a Commonwealth Expert Group on Women and Structural Adjustment (London: Commonwealth Secretariat, 1990).Google Scholar Cited in Jacobson, , Gender Bias, 16.Google Scholar

²⁵ Ibid., 17 .

²⁶ For a complete discussion, see U.N., Women: Challenges to the Year 2000.

²⁷ Women in Development: A.I.D.'s Experience, 1975-1985, vol. 1 (Washington, DC: A.I.D., 1987).Google Scholar Cited in Vanderslice, , “Getting Aid to Women,” 2–3.Google Scholar

²⁸ Jacobson, Jodi, “Out of the Woods,” World Watch 5/6 (11/12 1992):26–31.Google ScholarPubMed

²⁹ For the structure of this section and even for its title, I am indebted to Vickers, Women and the World Economic Crisis, esp. chaps. 1-2.

³⁰ The following brief analysis of the causes of the current world economic crisis is based on a talk given by Frances Stewart (Senior Research Fellow, Queen Elizabeth House, Oxford) at a UN/NGO workshop on Debt, Adjustment, and the Needs of the Poor, held in Oxford in September 1987. Cited in ibid., 1-2.

³¹ Todaro, Michael P., Economic Development in the Third World, 4th ed. (New York: Longman, 1989), 401–26.Google Scholar

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³³ Ibid., 5.

³⁴ Several United Nations studies emphasize the overwhelming burdens that structural adjustment policies have placed on the poor and the compelling need to change course. See, e.g., Cornia, G. A., Jolly, R., Stewart, F., eds., Adjustment with a Human Face (Oxford: Clarendon, 1987).Google Scholar

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³⁷ Ibid., 39. To compare this general description of third-world conditions to a regional case, see The Invisible Adjustment: Poor Women and the Economic Crisis, UNICEF: The Americas and the Caribbean Regional Office, Regional Program: Women in Development (Santiago, Chile: Alfabeta Impresores, 1989).Google Scholar

³⁸ Anand, Anita, “Development in the 1990s: Repetition or Innovation?” Development Forum (New York: United Nations, 09/10 1988).Google Scholar Cited in Vickers, , Women and the World Economic Crisis, 67.Google Scholar

³⁹ Agarwal, , Engendering Adjustment, 32.Google Scholar Cited in U.N., Women: Challenges to the Year 2000, 49.Google Scholar

⁴⁰ Various organizations have developed guidelines for individual communities to use in shaping their own programs. See ibid., 14, 25, 34-35, 50, 62-63, 78; and Nuss, , Women in the World of Work, 119–22.Google Scholar

⁴¹ Said with regard to the achievement of universal equal education but easily applicable to the achievement of economic equality (Education of the Girl Child: Her Right, Society's Gain, v).

⁴² See Vatican II, The Church in the Modern World (#3.1).

⁴³ For a discussion of this shift in methodology, see Curran, Charles E., “Changing Anthropological Bases of Ethics” in Curran, Charles E. and McCormick, Richard A., eds., Readings in Moral Theology, No. 5: Official Catholic Social Teaching (New York and Mahwah, NJ: Paulist, 1986), 188–218.Google Scholar

⁴⁴ Ibid., 190. See also The Condition of Labor, #32-35.

⁴⁵ On Christian Marriage in Carlen, Claudia, ed., The Papal Encyclicals, vol. 3: 1903-1939 (Raleigh, NC: Pierian Press, 1981).Google Scholar

⁴⁶ This phrasing of the argument for a family living wage is not meant to imply that the argument is always, or even usually, made from the woman's perspective. Indeed, Leo XIII based his argument on the man's right to provide for his family.

⁴⁷ While these shifts in emphasis and methodology are evident in the passages from John XXIII's encyclicals which follow in this discussion. Curran makes an explicit argument for them in his article, “Changing Anthropological Bases,” esp. 195-202.

⁴⁸ Riley, Maria and Sylvester, Nancy, Trouble and Beauty: Women Encounter Catholic Social Teaching (Washington, DC: Center of Concern, NETWORK, The Leadership Conference of Women Religious, 1991), 21.Google Scholar

⁴⁹ Ibid., 21.

⁵⁰ Dorr, Donal, Option for the Poor: A Hundred Years of Catholic Social Teaching, rev. ed. (Maryknoll, NY: Orbis, 1992), 300–301.Google Scholar

⁵¹ For a comprehensive development of this argument, see Ruether, Rosemary, Gaia & God: An Ecofeminist Theology of Earth Healing (San Francisco: Harper, 1993)Google Scholar, esp. 165-72.

⁵² Paul, John II, On the Family, Apostolic Exhortation: Familiaris Consortio (Washington, DC: United States Catholic Conference, 1982).Google Scholar

⁵³ Johnson, Elizabeth, “The Maleness of Christ” in Carr, Anne and Fiorenza, Elisabeth Schüssler, eds., The Special Nature of Women? Concilium 6 (1991): 110.Google Scholar

⁵⁴ Ibid., 110. Johnson provides several references including Scott, J., “Deconstructing Equality-Versus-Difference,” Feminist Studies 14 (Spring 1988): 33–50.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

⁵⁵ Riley, Maria, “Catholic, Feminist Committed to Justice and Peace,” Concilium 5 (1991): 10.Google Scholar

⁵⁶ Curran, , “Changing Anthropological Bases,” 189.Google Scholar

⁵⁷ See Riley, and Sylvester, , Trouble and Beauty, 7–8.Google Scholar