THE BOLOGNA PROCESS AND EUROPEAN HIGHER EDUCATION

Dutch political science education has been influenced by the Europe-wide Bologna Process, which led to the creation of the European Higher Education Area (EHEA) that currently includes 48 countries (EHEA 2017). The Bologna Process seeks to (1) make it easier for students to find employment anywhere in Europe after graduation by establishing mutual recognition of diplomas; and (2) facilitate the mobility of students. To achieve this, it sought to create common structures for degree programs, a common credit system (i.e., the European Credit Transfer System [ECTS]), and shared outcome statements (i.e., the Dublin Descriptors) (EHEA 2017). It also worked to strengthen quality-assurance mechanisms (EHEA 2017).

The Bologna Process relies on so-called soft law, which entails a focus on standard setting rather than European-level legislation (Reinalda Reference Reinalda2008a; Reference Reinalda2008b). Not all participating countries have made equal progress. Indeed, in some countries, there is significant debate about the merits of the Bologna Process (Grove Reference Grove2012; Meny Reference Meny2008; Pechar Reference Pechar, Curaj, Scott, Vlasceanu and Wilson2012; Scott Reference Scott2012).

Dutch political science programs, however, have made important strides in adapting their curricula to these Europe-wide standards. They have done this in part because the Dutch government mandated it (Nölke Reference Nölke2005). The national accreditation agency, the Nederlands-Vlaamse Accreditatie Organisatie (NVAO) (Accreditation Organization of the Netherlands and Flanders), employs stringent standards informed by the Bologna Process. Universities—and programs—must meet these standards to maintain their accreditation. Assessment occurs in a six-year cycle. All political science programs are evaluated simultaneously to provide comparative perspective. The universities propose and the NVAO approves a panel of experts, which is supported by an NVAO-trained independent professional throughout the evaluation process. The panel rates each bachelor’s and master’s program separately on the basis of applicable NVAO standards. Programs either are reaccredited, asked to remedy problems, or have reaccreditation withheld. In the latter case, the program loses its public funding and is closed; this is rare. However, continued accreditation is not guaranteed, and programs may be asked to prepare a plan for the implementation of improvements. In this case, the program will be reevaluated after two years and can receive its reaccreditation if the problems have been addressed satisfactorily.

Political science degrees are offered at four universities in the Netherlands: Radboud University Nijmegen, University of Amsterdam, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, and Leiden University. Several other universities offer related, interdisciplinary programs, which are not included here.^{Footnote 1}

In contrast with the United States, a bachelor’s degree (or equivalent) traditionally was not recognized as a university degree in the Netherlands (as elsewhere in Europe). Students typically completed (the equivalent of) a master’s degree. In 2002, the Bologna Process led to the government-mandated introduction of separate bachelor’s and master’s degrees. However, Dutch university students generally still complete a master’s degree before seeking employment. Therefore, both degrees are discussed.

STARTING WITH OUTCOMES

Dutch political science education at the bachelor’s and master’s levels is guided by outcome statements based on the Qualifications Framework of the EHEA, which was adopted in 2005. It is better known as the Dublin Descriptors. According to the European Consortium for Accreditation (ECA 2014), the Dublin Descriptors are “generic statements of typical expectations of achievements and abilities” associated with the completion of a bachelor’s or master’s degree. They apply generally across the disciplines. The Dublin Descriptors delineate competence levels for both the bachelor’s and the master’s degrees and include five components: (1) knowledge and understanding; (2) application of knowledge and understanding; (3) making judgments; (4) communication; and (5) lifelong learning skills (ECA 2014).^{Footnote 2}

In the Netherlands, these generic descriptors were adapted to political science through a process of consultation among the four political science departments. This process was built on agreements that the European Conference of National Political Science Associations made in 2003 and involved the Landelijk Overleg Opleidingen Politicologie (LOOP) (National Consultation of Political Science Programs).

The European agreements address both the duration and the content of political science programs (Reinalda Reference Reinalda2008a; Reference Reinalda2008b). The three-year bachelor’s degree program encompasses 180 credits in the ECTS.^{Footnote 3} The ECTS predates the Bologna Process and originally was designed to facilitate credit transfer among European universities (Adelman Reference Adelman2008; Roper Reference Roper2007). However, it is now also used as a credit-accumulation system in the EHEA.

Roper (Reference Roper2007) explained that the system works differently from the US credit system. The latter is based on “contact hours,” generally measured in terms of the number of hours per week that a course meets. In contrast, the ECTS estimates the average time it takes to achieve required learning outcomes. It counts the time a student spends not only in class but also on tasks such as reading, writing, and studying. Several Dutch universities state explicitly that one European Credit (EC) requires about 28 hours of studying.^{Footnote 4} Students are expected to complete the bachelor’s degree (i.e., 180 ECs) in three years, completing 60 credits annually or 30 per semester. A Dutch semester is 20 weeks long. Hence, full-time study, on average, is equivalent to a 40-hour workweek.^{Footnote 5} US universities usually translate 1 EC into a half credit (Roper Reference Roper2007).

The European agreements that set the bachelor’s degree at 180 ECs also determined that at least 90 ECs should involve political science courses. Dutch political science bachelor’s degree programs all exceed that minimum requirement. This differs from US bachelor’s degrees, which typically require 30 to 36 credit hours in the major discipline (of a total 120 for a four-year degree).

Additionally, the European agreements specified that a bachelor’s degree program in political science must include coursework in the following subfields: (1) political theory; (2) quantitative and qualitative methods; (3) the political system of one’s own country and the European Union; (4) comparative politics; and (5) international relations (see the Nijmegen bachelor’s degree self-study appendix; Reinalda Reference Reinalda2008b).

Furthermore, Dutch master’s degree programs are one year or 60 ECs.^{Footnote 6} Because university education traditionally is regarded as completed only after attaining the (equivalent of) master’s degree, most students enroll in such a program after completing the bachelor’s degree.

Dutch political science programs adhere to the European agreements not only in length and content; they also have adapted the Dublin Descriptors to outcomes for political science. These outcome statements are listed in table 1, which is organized in terms of the Dublin Descriptors’ five components and outlines competence levels associated with the bachelor’s and master’s degrees. The table shows how (1) outcome statements provide discipline-specific versions of the Dublin Descriptors; and (2) competence levels for the master’s degree build on—and differ from—those for the bachelor’s degree.

Table 1 Outcome Statements for Bachelor’s- and Master’s-Level Education (Dutch National Agreements Based on Europe-Wide Agreements and the Dublin Descriptors)*

* Translated by the author.

Competence levels for each degree combine knowledge and skills. Students must acquire discipline-specific knowledge as well as transferable skills.^{Footnote 7} The latter are skills that, although gained in the context of studying political science, can be applied in a variety of settings.

Each of the four Dutch universities that offer political science degrees uses these outcome statements as the foundation for its curriculum. The next section describes their program features.

DUTCH POLITICAL SCIENCE CURRICULA

In contrast to the United States, where students typically take five courses simultaneously that last the entire 15 weeks of the semester, Dutch universities split their 20-week semesters into several blocks, the length of which varies among the universities. Most courses are taught in these shorter blocks. Depending on the number of blocks into which a semester is split, students take two or three courses simultaneously. In addition, the number of ECs earned can vary. The default is 6 ECs (5 ECs at Leiden University), but some courses are as many as 9 ECs or as few as 2 or 3 ECs. The following sections discuss the Dutch bachelor’s and master’s degree programs in further detail.

COMPARING DUTCH AND US POLITICAL SCIENCE EDUCATION

The four Dutch political science bachelor’s and master’s programs are guided by the Bologna Process as a result of demands of the Dutch government and the national accreditation agency (i.e., NVAO), as described previously.

US universities face a different set of incentives. Different regions of the country have their own accreditation bodies, and there is no US equivalent to the Bologna Process or EHEA. Wahlke’s (Reference Wahlke1991) recommendations were not binding, although they influenced curriculum design at many US universities.

US bachelor’s and master’s degree programs differ from their Dutch counterparts in other respects as well. First, US bachelor’s degree programs in political science are four-year degree programs, require proportionally fewer credit hours in the discipline, and provide broader exposure to the liberal arts. Dutch bachelor’s degree programs leave little room for exploration beyond the chosen major.

Second, coursework in political science usually is moderately structured in the United States. Despite significant variation among universities, bachelor’s degree programs typically entail an introductory course, a course in US government, and one in research methods; and the requirement that students must sample from the various discipline subfields as well as a capstone course. Although there are exceptions (Breuning, Parker, and Ishiyama Reference Breuning, Parker and Ishiyama2001), most programs are not sequenced, which impedes the cumulation of knowledge and skills.

Master’s degree programs, in contrast, often are quite structured at US universities, although not more so than in the Netherlands. Important differences are that US students enter their master’s degree program with less training in research-related skills and they complete a two-year program. Important also is that in the United States, the bachelor’s degree traditionally has been viewed as a complete degree. Only high-performing students with specific interests in research and additional skill-building continue to the master’s degree—and possibly the PhD.

DUTCH LESSONS FOR US POLITICAL SCIENCE EDUCATION?

What, if anything, could US political science education learn from the outcome-based curricula in the Netherlands? Although the latter produces excellent learning outcomes—as evidenced by the quality of the students’ theses—US universities would find it difficult to implement curricula that closely mirror the Dutch curricula. This is due to distinct differences in the types of students that Dutch and US universities serve. The former primarily educate students who enter university after completion of their high school education. In contrast, many US universities educate a more diverse student population. Along with “traditional” students who enter after completing high school, US universities increasingly enroll students who first completed a two-year degree, accumulated credits while serving in the military, or have gaps in their education for financial or other reasons. In other words, US universities must frequently accommodate students who have accumulated credits elsewhere, which has implications for curriculum design, especially for the bachelor’s degree.

That said, the explicit focus on both skills and knowledge outcomes in the Netherlands yields graduates who are confident in what they can offer an employer. Political science programs at US universities might consider how they also can offer students the confidence that comes from this focus, which can be accomplished without fully adopting the Dutch strict structure and sequencing.

For instance, it may be feasible to ensure that transferable skills are more explicitly integrated into the overall curriculum. Elements of these skills are routinely incorporated into political science courses in the United States, but they rarely are advertised as professional-skills training. Individual instructors require students to complete various writing, speaking, and presentation assignments. By explicitly labeling these exercises as professional-skills training, instructors not only better convey why students are required to complete the assignments; they also raise their awareness of the fact that they are acquiring transferable skills.

Furthermore, training in research methods is a marketable skill. It may not be feasible to offer additional methods courses in the context of US bachelor’s degree programs; however, existing methods training could be better integrated into the overall curriculum. One strategy is to make the research methods course a prerequisite for upper-division distribution requirements or electives. This makes it possible to use exercises and projects to reinforce and extend a student’s grasp on the research methods that are already part of most undergraduate political science programs. These modifications would require coordination and perhaps modest changes to existing bachelor’s degree curricula. The result would be twofold: students would more consistently receive a full range of transferable skills training, including stronger reinforcement of research skills, and they would gain better awareness of the transferable—and marketable—skills that they acquire as they complete their bachelor’s degree.