Hostname: page-component-6766d58669-nf276 Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2026-05-18T06:06:59.165Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Marine n-3 fatty acids and CVD: new insights from recent follow-up studies and clinical supplementation trials

Part of: FENS 2019 Collection FENS 2019

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  01 April 2020

Christian S. Bork ,
Linda T. Mortensen ,
Katrin Hjelmgaard  and
Erik B. Schmidt
Christian S. Bork*
Affiliation:
Department of Cardiology, Aalborg University Hospital, Aalborg, Denmark
Linda T. Mortensen
Affiliation:
Department of Cardiology, Aalborg University Hospital, Aalborg, Denmark
Katrin Hjelmgaard
Affiliation:
Department of Cardiology, Aalborg University Hospital, Aalborg, Denmark
Erik B. Schmidt
Affiliation:
Department of Cardiology, Aalborg University Hospital, Aalborg, Denmark Department of Clinical Medicine, Aalborg University, Aalborg, Denmark
*
*Corresponding author: Christian S. Bork, email c.bork@rn.dk
Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Marine n-3 PUFA exert beneficial effects that might inhibit atherosclerosis and reduce vascular disease. Previous studies have, however, reported conflicting results and here we have summarised the early history and the most recent findings from follow-up studies and randomised clinical trials investigating marine n-3 PUFA in relation to the risk of atherosclerotic CVD. Most follow-up studies have suggested that the intake of marine n-3 PUFA may be associated with a lower risk of CVD. Recent studies have also shown that it is important to focus on substitution issues and dietary patterns. Further, the use of gold standard biomarkers of fatty acid exposure such as adipose tissue should be encouraged. Findings from clinical supplemental trials have shown conflicting results and findings from previous meta-analyses and guidelines have generally not supported the use of fish oil supplements for the prevention of CVD. However, a recent meta-analysis including three recent large clinical trials with fish oil supplements reported a moderate beneficial effect on cardiovascular endpoints. Interestingly, results from a large clinical trial (REDUCE-IT) have suggested that supplementation with a high dose of purified EPA ethyl ester for 4⋅9 years significantly and markedly reduced the risk of cardiovascular events in patients with CVD and mild hypertriglyceridaemia; findings that need to be confirmed. While it seems appropriate to recommend consumption of fish, particular fatty fish for prevention of CVD, an effect of fish oil supplements is probably at best marginal perhaps apart from patients with hypertriglyceridaemia.

Keywords

Marine n-3 PUFAEPADHAAtherosclerotic CVD

Information

Type
Conference on ‘Malnutrition in an Obese World: European Perspectives’
Information
Proceedings of the Nutrition Society , Volume 79 , Issue 4 , November 2020 , pp. 428 - 434
Check for updates
Copyright
Copyright © The Authors 2020

Marine n-3 PUFA are organic acids that naturally contain two or more double bonds in their carbon chain, which can be found in seafood and especially in oily fish such as mackerel, salmon, herring, anchovies, tuna and sardines(Reference De Caterina1,Reference Rimm, Appel and Chiuve2) . Marine n-3 PUFA may after ingestion become incorporated into cell membranes and storage pools, utilised in energy production and converted into lipid signalling molecules that may influence a myriad of molecular pathways. Marine n-3 PUFA have attracted great interest in cardiovascular research since Danish scientists from Aalborg in Denmark, Bang and Dyerberg reported that traditionally living Greenland Eskimos had a low prevalence of myocardial infarction, a markedly reduced platelet reactivity and an anti-atherogenic lipid profile compared with Danes and suggested this could be due to the Inuit diet that was extremely rich in marine n-3 PUFA in particular derived from seal and whale(Reference Bang, Dyerberg and Nielsen3–Reference Dyerberg and Schmidt5). Based on several expeditions and investigations, Dyerberg and colleagues in 1978 put forward their hypothesis that marine n-3 PUFA in particular EPA might protect against atherosclerosis and thrombosis(Reference Dyerberg, Bang and Stoffersen4). This made investigators from other parts of the world report their findings relating fish consumption to a reduced risk of CVD from populations in Alaska, several populations from the United States, Japan and the Netherlands(Reference Kromhout, Bosschieter and de Lezenne Coulander6,Reference Schmidt7) .

Beneficial effects of marine n-3 PUFA important to vascular disease risk may include anti-inflammatory effects, a lowering of plasma TAG, a reduction of platelet reactivity and heart rate, and improvement of endothelial dysfunction among others(Reference Mozaffarian and Wu8). Also, marine n-3 PUFA have been suggested to prevent fatal arrhythmias and sudden cardiac death, and to stabilise atherosclerotic plaques(Reference De Caterina1). Marine n-3 PUFA are composed of EPA (20 : 5 n-3), docosapentaenoic acid (DPA; 22 : 5 n-3) and DHA (22 : 6 n-3). Interestingly, the biological effects of these marine n-3 PUFA may differ. Thus, EPA might be more important in atherothrombosis, while DHA probably may be important for anti-arrhythmic effects of marine n-3 PUFA although these findings have not been consistent(Reference Saravanan, Davidson and Schmidt9). Also, EPA and DHA may have different effects on inflammation(Reference Baker, Yusof and Yaqoob10). Less is known of the biological effects of DPA.

The objective of the present paper was to summarise recent findings from previous observational follow-up studies and randomised clinical trials investigating marine n-3 PUFA in relation to the risk of atherosclerotic CVD including not only CHD, but also ischaemic stroke and peripheral artery disease (PAD).

Follow-up studies on marine n-3 PUFA and atherosclerotic CVD

Marine n-3 PUFA and CHD

Several follow-up studies have investigated the intake of marine n-3 PUFA in relation to the risk of CHD and a previous systematic review and meta-analysis of observational follow-up studies including 422 786 participants and a total of 9089 CHD cases concluded that the intake of total marine n-3 PUFA might be associated with a lower risk of CHD(Reference Chowdhury, Warnakula and Kunutsor11). Further, a pooled analysis of previous observational biomarker studies has supported that marine n-3 PUFA may be associated with a lower risk of fatal CHD(Reference Del Gobbo and Imamura12). However, few studies have examined associations between the complementary measures of exposure of both total and individual n-3 PUFA and risk of CHD.

The Danish Diet, Cancer and Health (DCH) cohort represents a valuable source to study associations between the fatty acids and development of health outcomes because detailed information on diet and lifestyle was collected at baseline including an adipose tissue biopsy from the buttock(Reference Tjønneland, Olsen and Boll13). The DCH cohort was established between 1993 and 1997 and included a total of 57 053 men and women(Reference Tjønneland, Olsen and Boll13). The adipose tissue content of marine n-3 PUFA is considered the gold standard biomarker of intake and metabolism of these fatty acids(Reference Hodson, Skeaff and Fielding14). Early findings from the DCH cohort suggested indications of inverse associations between the intake of total marine n-3 PUFA, EPA, DPA and DHA and the risk of acute coronary syndrome in men, while no consistent pattern of associations were found in women(Reference Joensen, Schmidt and Dethlefsen15). Also, indications of a lower risk of acute coronary syndrome were observed in analyses of adipose tissue content of total marine n-3 PUFA, EPA, DHA and DPA in men, whereas no consistent pattern of association was observed amongst women(Reference Joensen, Overvad and Dethlefsen16). However, a later study from the same cohort with a longer follow-up including more cases found indications of lower rates of myocardial infarction among subjects in the highest quintile of intake of total marine n-3 PUFA, EPA, DPA and DHA in both men and women(Reference Gammelmark, Nielsen and Bork17). Further, a study investigating adipose tissue content of marine n-3 PUFA also found that EPA and DHA might be inversely related to the risk of myocardial infarction(Reference Gammelmark, Nielsen and Bork18). In contrast, adipose tissue content of DPA was associated with a higher risk of myocardial infarction(Reference Gammelmark, Nielsen and Bork18). A possible explanation for this finding may be that DPA apart from fish can also be found in meat.

Marine n-3 PUFA and ischaemic stroke

We have recently reviewed follow-up studies reporting on the association between the intake of marine n-3 PUFA and the risk of ischaemic stroke(Reference Venø, Schmidt and Bork19). In brief, findings from the Nurses' Health Study(Reference Iso, Rexrode and Stampfer20), the Health Professionals Follow-up Study(Reference He, Rimm and Merchant21) and the Swedish Mammography Cohort(Reference Larsson, Virtamo and Wolk22) have indicated that the intake of EPA + DHA may be associated with a lower risk of total ischaemic stroke. Also, indications of lower rates of total ischaemic stroke were observed among both men and women in the MORGEN Study(Reference de Goede, Verschuren and Boer23), but the confidence intervals were wide and the point estimates were not statistically significant. In contrast, five other follow-up studies found no consistent pattern of associations between the intake of EPA + DHA or total marine n-3 PUFA and the risk of total ischaemic stroke(Reference Rhee, Kim and Buring24–Reference Venø, Bork and Jakobsen29). Also, previous biomarker studies investigating the association between the content of EPA + DHA or total n-3 PUFA in blood compartments and the risk of total ischaemic stroke have not given consistent results(Reference De Goede, Verschuren and Boer30–Reference Saber, Yakoob and Shi34). However, most studies have not discriminated between intake of individual marine n-3 PUFA, which may be of importance due to possible differences in biological effects. Further, recent findings suggest that the association between marine n-3 PUFA and risk of ischaemic stroke may differ according to the aetiological origin as ischaemic stroke is a heterogeneous condition. The TOAST classification system has been widely used for categorisation of ischaemic stroke into subtypes including large artery atherosclerosis, small-vessel occlusion, cardio-embolism, other aetiology (rare causes) or undetermined aetiology(Reference Adams, Bendixen and Kappelle35). Ischaemic strokes due to large artery atherosclerosis is believed to be mainly caused by atherosclerosis, whereas ischaemic strokes due to small-vessel occlusion may occur as a result of atherosclerosis or lipohyalinosis affecting the smaller penetrating arteries(Reference Adams, Bendixen and Kappelle35,Reference Lammie36) . Ischaemic strokes due to cardio-embolism are mainly due to atrial fibrillation or flutter, while ischaemic strokes of other aetiology include rare causes of stroke such as vasculopathies, arterial dissections and hypercoagulable states(Reference Adams, Bendixen and Kappelle35). Few studies have evaluated associations between n-3 PUFA and the risk of ischaemic stroke subtypes, and findings have been conflicting(Reference Venø, Schmidt and Bork19). Thus, a study based on pooled analyses from three large American cohorts found inverse associations between the content of DHA in plasma phospholipids and the risk of atherothrombotic stroke (large artery atherosclerosis and small-vessel occlusions), while no associations were found for EPA and DPA(Reference Saber, Yakoob and Shi34). However, the content of DPA in plasma phospholipids was inversely associated with the risk of cardio-embolic stroke, whereas no associations were observed between EPA and DHA and the risk of cardio-embolic stroke(Reference Saber, Yakoob and Shi34). In contrast, we reported in a large follow-up study of more than 1800 total ischaemic stroke cases using data from the DCH cohort that a high intake of EPA and DHA was associated with a lower risk of ischaemic stroke due to large artery atherosclerosis and surprisingly also a higher risk of ischaemic stroke due to cardio-embolism(Reference Venø, Bork and Jakobsen29). No consistent pattern of associations was observed between the intake of EPA and DHA and the risk of ischaemic stroke due to small-vessel occlusions, but indications of a higher risk of ischaemic stroke due to cardio-embolism and small-vessel occlusion were observed when comparing the highest quartile of DPA with the lowest although not statistically significant(Reference Venø, Bork and Jakobsen29). A major advantage of this study was the use of adipose tissue content of marine n-3 PUFA, which showed that the content of EPA in adipose tissue was associated with a lower risk of ischaemic stroke due to large artery atherosclerosis and small-vessel occlusion (Fig. 1), whereas the content of DPA in adipose tissue was associated with a higher risk of ischaemic stroke due to cardio-embolism(Reference Venø, Bork and Jakobsen29).

Fig. 1.

Associations between content of EPA (a) and DHA (b) in adipose tissue and development of vascular disease including myocardial infarction, ischaemic stroke and peripheral artery disease in studies originating from the Danish Diet, Cancer and Health cohort.

Marine n-3 PUFA and peripheral artery disease

Limited knowledge exists regarding the role of marine n-3 PUFA and development of PAD. However, in a recent case-cohort study including 863 cases of validated PAD based on data from the DCH cohort we found that a high content of EPA + DHA in adipose tissue was inversely associated with the risk of PAD after a median 13⋅5 years of follow-up(Reference Lasota, Grønholdt and Bork37). Analyses of the individual n-3 PUFA showed that in particular a high content of EPA in adipose tissue was associated with a lower risk of PAD, while the association between a high content of DHA in adipose tissue and the risk of PAD was weaker and statistically non-significant (Fig. 1)(Reference Lasota, Grønholdt and Bork37). In contrast, indications of a positive association were observed between the DPA content in adipose tissue and the risk of PAD(Reference Lasota, Grønholdt and Bork37).

Randomised clinical trials with marine n-3 PUFA

Several clinical trials have been conducted to study the effect of marine long-chain n-3 PUFA on the risk of CVD; however, the results have been conflicting.

In the seminal DART study published in 1989, a total of 2033 male survivors of myocardial infarction were randomly assigned to receive or not receive one of three dietary recommendations and one of those included advice to increase the intake of oily fish(Reference Burr, Fehily and Gilbert38). Subjects advised to increase their intake of fatty fish had a markedly lower risk of all-cause mortality after 2 years follow-up compared with those not advised to increase their intake of fatty fish (Hazard ratio (HR) 0⋅71, 95 % CI 0⋅54, 0⋅93), which was ascribed to a beneficial effect on cardiovascular deaths(Reference Burr, Fehily and Gilbert38). This led to suggestions of an anti-arrhythmic effect of marine n-3 PUFA in line with previous in vitro studies(Reference Hallaq, Smith and Leaf39) and animal studies(Reference McLennan, Bridle and Abeywardena40). The DART study was novel in showing dietary advices on increased fish consumption might reduce mortality, but the dietary intervention was complex, and an open-label design was used. Another landmark study, the GISSI-Prevenzione trial, was the first major clinical trial to evaluate the clinical effect of fish oil supplementation in patients with a myocardial infarction(41). In this study, 11 324 subjects with a recent myocardial infarction were randomly allocated to four treatment groups using an open-label design including supplements of EPA + DHA (1 g daily), vitamin E (300 mg daily), both or neither (control group)(41). After 3⋅5 years follow-up, subjects who received EPA + DHA had a lower risk of a primary composite endpoint of death non-fatal myocardial infarction and non-fatal stroke compared with controls (HR 0⋅90, 95 % CI 0⋅82, 0⋅99) and a substantial lower risk of sudden death (HR 0⋅74, 95 % CI 0⋅58, 0⋅93)(41). This was the first study suggesting that fish oil supplements might reduce CVD risk. Further, 18 645 subjects with hypercholesterolaemia enrolled in the JELIS trial from Japan randomly assigned using an open-label design to receive 1⋅8 g purified EPA and statins daily had a lower risk of coronary events after 4⋅6 years follow-up compared with subjects receiving statins only (HR 0⋅81, 95 % CI 0⋅69, 0⋅95)(Reference Yokoyama and Origasa42). In contrast, supplementation of 0⋅4 g EPA + DHA daily was not associated with a lower risk of major cardiovascular events compared with controls in 4837 subjects with a prior myocardial infarction enrolled in the double-blinded Alpha Omega trial (HR 1⋅01, 95 % CI 0⋅87, 1⋅17)(Reference Kromhout, Giltay and Geleijnse43). Also, several other previous clinical supplemental trials have not supported that n-3 PUFA lower the risk of CVD(Reference Siscovick, Barringer and Fretts44). A meta-analysis from 2018 including 77 917 individuals from ten clinical supplemental trials concluded that supplementation with n-3 PUFA had no significant association with fatal or non-fatal CHD or any vascular event(Reference Aung and Halsey45).

Latest evidence from randomised clinical supplementation trials

Recently, the results of three large trials using fish oil supplements have been published. The ASCEND study investigated whether supplementation with 1 g EPA + DHA daily compared with olive oil was associated with the risk of a composite endpoint of non-fatal myocardial infarction, ischaemic stroke, transient ischaemic attack or vascular death in 15 480 subjects with diabetes mellitus and without evidence of CVD(Reference Bowman and Mafham46). After 7⋅4 years of follow-up, no significant difference in the risk of the composite endpoint was observed between those assigned to receive EPA + DHA and those assigned to receive placebo (HR 0⋅97, 95 % CI 0⋅87, 1⋅08). Also, supplementation with 1 g EPA + DHA daily was not statistically significantly associated with the risk of major cardiovascular events defined as a composite of myocardial infarction, stroke or death from cardiovascular cause among 25 871 participants followed-up for 5⋅3 years in the VITAL study(Reference Manson and Cook47). However, secondary analyses of the ASCEND study(Reference Bowman and Mafham46) indicated that EPA + DHA might lower the risk of vascular death, whereas secondary analyses from the VITAL study(Reference Manson and Cook47) indicated that EPA + DHA was associated with a lower risk of myocardial infarction compared with placebo.

Interestingly, the REDUCE-IT study investigated the effect of supplementation of a total dose of 4 g purified EPA ethyl ester against placebo on the risk of cardiovascular events among 8179 subjects with established CVD or with diabetes and at least one additional risk factor and mildly elevated plasma TAG(Reference Bhatt and Steg48). After a median 4⋅9 years follow-up, markedly lower rates of a composite endpoint of cardiovascular death, non-fatal myocardial infarction, non-fatal stroke, coronary revascularisation or unstable angina pectoris was observed in those assigned to EPA ethyl ester supplementation compared with placebo (HR 0⋅75, 95 % CI 0⋅68, 0⋅83)(Reference Bhatt and Steg48).

Finally, a recent meta-analysis including thirteen clinical trials including the three studies mentioned earlier concluded that marine n-3 PUFA supplementation lowered the risk of myocardial infarction, total CHD and total CVD(Reference Hu, Hu and Manson49). However, the observed effect estimates were modest.

Strengths and limitations of present evidence

Randomised controlled trials with hard endpoints are considered the gold standard of scientific evidence. However, in the context of nutritional research carefully conducted prospective epidemiological studies represent a valuable approach to study the role of marine n-3 PUFA in relation to development of CVD. Previous clinical trials investigating marine n-3 PUFA supplementation on CVD risk have been conducted in subjects with preexisting CHD or at high risk of CHD and the interventions have been relatively short in the context of a disease with a long aetiological period as atherosclerosis that may begin in early life and develop over a lifetime. In contrast, clinical supplemental trials have offered the possibility to investigate high doses of marine n-3 PUFA on CVD risk that may be difficult to achieve through the diet.

Marine n-3 PUFA in present guidelines

The present British National Institute for Health Care Guidelines recommend subjects at high risk or with established CVD to eat at least two portions of fish weekly including a portion of oily fish(50). Similar recommendations regarding fish intake are encouraged in the European Guidelines on CVD prevention in clinical practice(Reference Piepoli, Hoes and Agewall51). American Guidelines from 2018 give advice that one or two seafood meals should be included to reduce the risk of CVD especially when seafood replaces the intake of less healthy foods(Reference Rimm, Appel and Chiuve2). Also, supplementation with n-3 PUFA has been considered reasonable for patients with prevalent CHD in the most recent guidelines from the American Heart Association(Reference Siscovick, Barringer and Fretts44). Further, the 2019 ESC/EAS Guidelines introduced new recommendations suggesting that the use of n-3 PUFA (icosapent ethyl 2 × 2 g daily) in subjects in high risk of CVD or above with elevated plasma TAG should be considered in combination with statins(Reference Mach, Baigent and Catapano52).

Conversely, epidemiological studies have offered the possibility to study associations between marine n-3 PUFA and development of CVD over 15–20 years or more follow-up. However, random measurement error is an inevitable limitation of epidemiological studies relying on self-reported intakes. Therefore, the use of objective biomarkers of marine n-3 PUFA exposure in addition to estimated intakes represents an important approach to study the role of marine n-3 PUFA in relation to the risk of CVD although it should be acknowledged that both estimated intakes and biomarkers of exposure are indicators of an underlying dietary pattern. Further, epidemiological studies offer the possibility to study modelling of isoenergetic substitutions with other foods and several studies, which is of interest as several studies from the DCH cohort have suggested that the association between the intake of fish and risk of myocardial infarction, ischaemic stroke and PAD depends on the foods that is being replaced(Reference Würtz, Hansen and Tjønneland53–Reference Lasota, Grønholdt and Bork55).

Conclusion

Several observational follow-up studies have indicated that marine n-3 PUFA may be associated with a lower risk of myocardial infarction and ischaemic stroke caused by atherosclerosis and PAD. Further, the use of adipose tissue as a gold standard long-term objective biomarkers have generally shown stronger associations for EPA than DHA in adipose tissue on myocardial infarction and ischaemic stroke caused by atherosclerosis and PAD (Fig. 1). Early clinical supplementation trials supported a beneficial role of marine n-3 PUFA in lowering the risk of CVD although more recent studies have questioned these findings. Differences in study designs, composition of interventions, trial duration and other methodological variations might explain some of the inconsistencies observed. One of the most consistent biochemical findings after increased the intake of n-3 PUFA has been a reduction in plasma TAG. It is therefore of outmost interest that supplementation with 4 g purified EPA ethyl esters in the REDUCE-IT study showed a significant and pronounced effect on major cardiovascular events in subjects with mildly elevated plasma TAG. However, these results need to be confirmed by other studies.

Financial Support

C. S. B. has received a grant from The Health Research Foundation of North Denmark Region. The funding agency had no role in writing of the manuscript or decision to publish.

Conflict of Interest

None.

Authorship

All authors contributed to planning the outline of the present paper. C. S. B. wrote the first draft of the manuscript. E. B. S., L. T. M. and K. H. critically revised the manuscript and contributed with intellectual content to the paper. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.

References

De Caterina, R (2011) n-3 fatty acids in cardiovascular disease. N Engl J Med 364, 2439–2450.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rimm, E, Appel, L, Chiuve, S et al. (2018) Seafood long-chain n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids and cardiovascular disease: a science advisory from the American Heart Association. Circulation 138, e35–e47.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bang, H, Dyerberg, J & Nielsen, A (1971) Plasma lipid and lipoprotein pattern in Greenlandic West-coast Eskimos. Lancet 1, 1143–1145.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dyerberg, J, Bang, H, Stoffersen, E et al. (1978) Eicosapentaenoic acid and prevention of thrombosis and atherosclerosis? Lancet 2, 117–119.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dyerberg, J & Schmidt, E (1989) n-3 fatty acids and cardiovascular disease – observations generated by studies in Greenland Eskimos. Wien Klin Wochenschr 101, 277–282.Google ScholarPubMed
Kromhout, D, Bosschieter, E & de Lezenne Coulander, C (1985) The inverse relation between fish consumption and 20-year mortality from coronary heart disease. N Engl J Med 312, 1205–1209.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Schmidt, E (1997) n-3 fatty acids and the risk of coronary heart disease. Dan Med Bull 44, 1–22.Google ScholarPubMed
Mozaffarian, D & Wu, J (2011) Omega-3 fatty acids and cardiovascular disease: effects on risk factors, molecular pathways, and clinical events. J Am Coll Cardiol 58, 2047–2067.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Saravanan, P, Davidson, N, Schmidt, E et al. (2010) Cardiovascular effects of marine omega-3 fatty acids. Lancet 376, 540–550.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Baker, E, Yusof, M, Yaqoob, P et al. (2018) Omega-3 fatty acids and leukocyte-endothelium adhesion: novel anti-atherosclerotic actions. Mol Aspects Med 64, 169–181.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Chowdhury, R, Warnakula, S, Kunutsor, S et al. (2014) Association of dietary, circulating, and supplement fatty acids with coronary risk: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Ann Intern Med 160, 398–406.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Del Gobbo, L, Imamura, F, Cohorts for Heart and Aging Research in Genomic Epidemiology (CHARGE) Fatty Acids and Outcomes Research Consortium (FORCE) et al. (2016) ω-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid biomarkers and coronary heart disease: pooling project of 19 cohort studies. JAMA 176, 1155–1166.Google ScholarPubMed
Tjønneland, A, Olsen, A, Boll, K et al. (2007) Study design, exposure variables, and socioeconomic determinants of participation in diet, cancer and health: a population-based prospective cohort study of 57,053 men and women in Denmark. Scand J Public Health 35, 432–441.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hodson, L, Skeaff, C & Fielding, B (2008) Fatty acid composition of adipose tissue and blood in humans and its use as a biomarker of dietary intake. Prog Lipid Res 47, 348–380.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Joensen, A, Schmidt, E, Dethlefsen, C et al. (2010) Dietary intake of total marine n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids, eicosapentaenoic acid, docosahexaenoic acid and docosapentaenoic acid and the risk of acute coronary syndrome – a cohort study. Br J Nutr 103, 602–607.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Joensen, A, Overvad, K, Dethlefsen, C et al. (2011) Marine n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids in adipose tissue and the risk of acute coronary syndrome. Circulation 124, 1232–1238.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gammelmark, A, Nielsen, M, Bork, C et al. (2016) Association of fish consumption and dietary intake of marine n-3 PUFA with myocardial infarction in a prospective Danish cohort study. Br J Nutr 116, 167–177.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gammelmark, A, Nielsen, M, Bork, C et al. (2016) Adipose tissue content of marine n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids is inversely associated with myocardial infarction. J Am Coll Cardiol 67, 1008–1009.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Venø, S, Schmidt, E & Bork, C (2019) Polyunsaturated fatty acids and risk of ischemic stroke. Nutrients 11, E1467.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Iso, H, Rexrode, K, Stampfer, M et al. (2001) Intake of fish and omega-3 fatty acids and risk of stroke in women. JAMA 285, 304–312.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
He, K, Rimm, E, Merchant, A et al. (2002) Fish consumption and risk of stroke in men. JAMA 288, 3130–3136.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Larsson, S, Virtamo, J & Wolk, A (2012) Dietary fats and dietary cholesterol and risk of stroke in women. Atherosclerosis 221, 282–286.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
de Goede, J, Verschuren, W, Boer, JM et al. (2012) Gender-specific associations of marine n-3 fatty acids and fish consumption with 10-year incidence of stroke. PLoS ONE 7, e33866.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rhee, J, Kim, E, Buring, J et al. (2017) Fish consumption, omega-3 fatty acids, and risk of cardiovascular disease. Am J Prev Med 52, 10–19.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Montonen, J, Järvinen, R, Reunanen, A et al. (2009) Fish consumption and the incidence of cerebrovascular disease. Br J Nutr 102, 750–756.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kippler, M, Larsson, S, Berglund, M et al. (2016) Associations of dietary polychlorinated biphenyls and long-chain omega-3 fatty acids with stroke risk. Environ Int 94, 706–711.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wallström, P, Sonestedt, E, Hlebowicz, J et al. (2012) Dietary fiber and saturated fat intake associations with cardiovascular disease differ by sex in the Malmö diet and cancer cohort: a prospective study. PLoS ONE 7, e31637.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Yamagishi, K, Iso, H, Date, C et al. (2008) Fish, omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids, and mortality from cardiovascular diseases in a nationwide community-based cohort of Japanese men and women the JACC (Japan Collaborative Cohort Study for Evaluation of Cancer Risk) study. J Am Coll Cardiol 52, 988–996.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Venø, S, Bork, C, Jakobsen, M et al. (2019) Marine n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids and the risk of ischemic stroke. Stroke 50, 274–282.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
De Goede, J, Verschuren, W, Boer, J et al. (2013) n-6 and n-3 fatty acid cholesteryl esters in relation to incident stroke in a Dutch adult population: a nested case-control study. Nutr Metab Cardiovasc Dis 23, 737–743.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Yamagishi, K, Folsom, A & Steffen, L (2013) Plasma fatty acid composition and incident ischemic stroke in middle-aged adults: the Atherosclerosis Risk in Communities (ARIC) study. Cerebrovasc Dis 36, 38–46.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Daneshmand, R, Kurl, S, Tuomainen, T et al. (2016) Associations of serum n-3 and n-6 PUFA and hair mercury with the risk of incident stroke in men: the Kuopio ischaemic heart disease risk factor study (KIHD). Br J Nutr 115, 1851–1859.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mozaffarian, D, Lemaitre, R, King, I et al. (2013) Plasma phospholipid long-chain ω-3 fatty acids and total and cause-specific mortality in older adults: a cohort study. Ann Intern Med 158, 515–525.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Saber, H, Yakoob, M, Shi, P et al. (2017) Omega-3 fatty acids and incident ischemic stroke and its atherothrombotic and cardioembolic subtypes in 3 US cohorts. Stroke 48, 2678–2685.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Adams, HJ, Bendixen, B, Kappelle, L et al. (1993) Classification of subtype of acute ischemic stroke. Definitions for use in a multicenter clinical trial. TOAST. Trial of Org 10172 in acute stroke treatment. Stroke 24, 35–41.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lammie, G (2000) Pathology of small vessel stroke. Br Med Bull 56, 296–306.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lasota, A, Grønholdt, M, Bork, C et al. (2018) Marine n-3 fatty acids and the risk of peripheral arterial disease. J Am Coll Cardiol 72, 1576–1584.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Burr, M, Fehily, A, Gilbert, J et al. (1989) Effects of changes in fat, fish, and fibre intakes on death and myocardial reinfarction: diet and reinfarction trial (DART). Lancet 2, 757–761.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hallaq, H, Smith, T & Leaf, A (1992) Modulation of dihydropyridine-sensitive calcium channels in heart cells by fish oil fatty acids. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 89, 1760–1764.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
McLennan, P, Bridle, T, Abeywardena, M et al. (1993) Comparative efficacy of n-3 and n-6 polyunsaturated fatty acids in modulating ventricular fibrillation threshold in marmoset monkeys. Am J Clin Nutr 58, 666–669.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
GISSI Prevenzione Investigators (1999) Dietary supplementation with n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids and vitamin E after myocardial infarction: results of the GISSI-Prevenzione trial. Lancet 354, 447–455.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Yokoyama, M, Origasa, H, Japan EPA lipid intervention study (JELIS) Investigators et al. (2007) Effects of eicosapentaenoic acid on major coronary events in hypercholesterolaemic patients (JELIS): a randomised open-label, blinded endpoint analysis. Lancet 369, 1090–1098.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kromhout, D, Giltay, E, Geleijnse, J et al. (2010) n-3 fatty acids and cardiovascular events after myocardial infarction. N Engl J Med 363, 2015–2026.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Siscovick, DS, Barringer, TA, Fretts, AM et al. (2017) Omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid (fish oil) supplementation and the prevention of clinical cardiovascular disease: a science advisory from the American Heart Association. Circulation 135, e867–e884.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Aung, T, Halsey, J, Omega-3 Treatment Trialists’ Collaboration et al. (2018) Associations of Omega-3 fatty acid supplement use with cardiovascular disease risks: meta-analysis of 10 trials involving 77 917 individuals. JAMA Cardiol 3, 225–234.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
ASCEND Study Collaborative Group, Bowman, L, Mafham, M et al. (2018) Effects of n-3 fatty acid supplements in diabetes mellitus. N Engl J Med 379, 1540–1550.Google ScholarPubMed
Manson, JE, Cook, NR, VITAL Research Group et al. (2019) Marine n-3 fatty acids and prevention of cardiovascular disease and cancer. N Engl J Med 380, 23–32.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bhatt, D, Steg, P, REDUCE-IT Investigators et al. (2019) Cardiovascular risk reduction with icosapent ethyl for hypertriglyceridemia. N Engl J Med 380, 11–22.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hu, Y, Hu, FB & Manson, JE (2019) Marine omega-3 supplementation and cardiovascular disease: an updated meta-analysis of 13 randomized controlled trials involving 127 477 participants. J Am Heart Assoc 8, e013543.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
National Institute for Health and Care Excellence (2014) Cardiovascular disease: risk assessment and reduction, including lipid modification. Available from nice.org.uk/guidance/cg181Google Scholar
Piepoli, M, Hoes, A, Agewall, S et al. (2016) 2016 European guidelines on cardiovascular disease prevention in clinical practice: the sixth joint task force of the European Society of Cardiology and other societies on cardiovascular disease prevention in clinical practice. Eur Heart J 37, 2315–2381.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mach, F, Baigent, C, Catapano, AL et al. (2020) 2019 ESC/EAS guidelines for the management of dyslipidaemias: lipid modification to reduce cardiovascular risk. Eur Heart J 41, 111–188.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Würtz, AML, Hansen, MD, Tjønneland, A et al. (2016) Substitutions of red meat, poultry and fish and risk of myocardial infarction. Br J Nutr 115, 1571–1578.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Venø, SK, Bork, CS, Jakobsen, MU et al. (2018) Substitution of fish for red meat or poultry and risk of ischemic stroke. Nutrients 10, E1648.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lasota, AN, Grønholdt, M-LM, Bork, CS et al. (2019) Substitution of poultry and red meat with fish and the risk of peripheral arterial disease: a Danish cohort study. Eur J Nutr 58, 2731–2739.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Figure 0

Fig. 1. Associations between content of EPA (a) and DHA (b) in adipose tissue and development of vascular disease including myocardial infarction, ischaemic stroke and peripheral artery disease in studies originating from the Danish Diet, Cancer and Health cohort.