“To Get More Harvest”

doi:10.1017/9781009416665.006

5 - “To Get More Harvest”

Natural Systems, Cultural Values, and Indigenous Resource Management in Northwestern North America

Published online by Cambridge University Press: 11 April 2024

Nancy J. Turner and

Douglas Deur

Edited by

Edward A. Johnson and

Susan M. Arlidge

Show author details

Edward A. Johnson: Affiliation:
University of Calgary
Susan M. Arlidge: Affiliation:
University of Calgary

Book contents

Get access

Summary

Northwestern North America is a region of high biocultural diversity. Since time immemorial, Indigenous peoples here have relied on numerous species of plants, animals, fungi, and algae as sources of food, materials, and medicines. They have developed many strategies for survival and for reducing risks associated with unpredictable, changing environments. This chapter draws from diverse sources to present an overview of Indigenous peoples’ traditional knowledge systems, specifically on practices and strategies relating to the management and enhancement of plant, algal, and fungal resources. These include, at a broad scale, plant community ownership, monitoring, conservation, ceremonial oversight, distributed access, knowledge exchange, and numerous technological innovations relating to particular plant resource populations. Practices to maintain the productivity and quality of these resources include the use of fire and other methods to clear areas for berry and geophyte production; soil enhancement through tilling and the use of fertilizers; partial and selective harvesting; thinning, pruning, and coppicing shrubs and trees; and transplanting, scattering, and replanting propagules. We conclude that Indigenous resource management has significantly shaped the abundance and distribution of certain plant species and enhanced the region’s overall plant biodiversity.

Keywords

traditional land management Indigenous gardens sustainability oral tradition

Information

Type: Chapter
Information: Natural Science and Indigenous Knowledge
The Americas Experience
, pp. 137 - 175

DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/9781009416665.006 [Opens in a new window]

Publisher: Cambridge University Press

Print publication year: 2024

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

Book purchase

Temporarily unavailable

References

Aikenhead, G. and Mitchell, H. (2010). Bridging Culture: Indigenous and Scientific Ways of Knowing Nature. London: Pearson.Google Scholar

Anderson, E. N. (1996). Ecologies of the Heart: Emotion, Belief and the Environment. New York: Oxford University Press.10.1093/oso/9780195090109.001.0001CrossRef Google Scholar

Anderson, M. K. (1991). California Indian horticulture: management and use of redbud by the southern Sierra Miwok. Journal of Ethnobiology, 11(1), 145–57.Google Scholar

Anderson, M. K. (1999). The fire, pruning, and coppice management of temperate ecosystems for basketry material by California Indian tribes. Human Ecology, 27(1), 79–113.CrossRef Google Scholar

Anderson, M. K. (2005). Tending the Wild: Native American Knowledge and Management of California’s Natural Resources. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.10.1525/9780520933101CrossRef Google Scholar

Anderson, M. K. (2009). The Ozette Prairies of Olympic National Park: Their Former Indigenous Uses and Management. Port Angeles, WA: Olympic National Park.Google Scholar

Anderson, M. K. and Barbour, M. G. (2003). Simulated Indigenous management: a new model for ecological restoration in national parks. Ecological Restoration, 21, 269–77.CrossRef Google Scholar

Anderson, M. K. and Lake, F. K. (2013). California Indian ethnomycology and associated forest management. Journal of Ethnobiology, 33(1), 33–85.10.2993/0278-0771-33.1.33CrossRef Google Scholar

Anderson, M. K. and Rowney, D. L. (1998). California geophytes: ecology, ethnobotany, and conservation. Fremontia, 26(1), 12–18.Google Scholar

Armstrong, C. G. (2017). Historical ecology of cultural landscapes in the Pacific Northwest. PhD dissertation, Simon Fraser University.Google Scholar

Armstrong, C. G., Dixon, M., and Turner, N. J. (2018). Management and traditional production of beaked hazelnut (k’áp’xw-az’, Corylus cornuta; Betulaceae) in British Columbia. Human Ecology, 46, 547–59.CrossRef Google Scholar

Atleo, E. R. (Chief Umeek). (2004). Tsawalk: A Nuu-chah-nulth Worldview. Vancouver, BC: UBC Press.Google Scholar

Atleo, E. R. (Chief Umeek). (2011). Principles of Tsawalk: An Indigenous Approach to Global Crisis. Vancouver, BC: UBC Press.CrossRef Google Scholar

Beckwith, B. R. (2004). The queen root of this clime: ethnoecological investigations of blue camas (Camassia quamash, C. leichtlinii; Liliaceae) landscapes on Southern Vancouver Island, British Columbia. PhD dissertation, University of Victoria.Google Scholar

Berkes, F. (2017). Sacred Ecology, 4th ed. London: Routledge.10.4324/9781315114644CrossRef Google Scholar

Berkes, F. (2021). Advanced Introduction to Community-Based Conservation. Cheltenham, UK, and Northampton, MA: Edward Elgar.Google Scholar

Blackburn, T. C. and Anderson, M. K. (1993). Before the Wilderness. Menlo Park, CA: Ballena.Google Scholar

Blackman, M. B. (1990). Haida traditional culture. In Suttles, W. P., ed., Handbook of North American Indians: Northwest Coast, vol. 7. Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution, pp. 240–60.Google Scholar

Boas, F. (1921). Ethnology of the Kwakiutl. Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution.Google Scholar

Boyd, R., ed. (2022). Indians, Fire and the Land in the Pacific Northwest. 2nd ed. Corvallis, OR: Oregon State University Press.Google Scholar

Brown, F., Brown, K., Wilson, B., Waterfall, P., and Cranmer Webster, G. (2009). Staying the Course, Staying Alive: Coastal First Nations Fundamental Truths. Victoria, BC: Biodiversity BC.Google Scholar

Charlie, L. A. and Turner, N. J. (2021). Luschiim’s Plants: A Hul’q’umi’num’ (Cowichan) Ethnobotany. Madeira Park, BC: Harbour Publishing.Google Scholar

Chestnut, V. K. (1902). Plants used by the Indians of Mendocino County, California, Contributions from the U.S. National Herbarium, 7, 295–408.Google Scholar

Courchene, D., Whitecloud, K., and Stonechild, B. (2021). Connecting spiritually with the land and each other, Reconciling Ways of Knowing. www.waysofknowingforum.ca/dialogue7.Google Scholar

Crawford, S. (2016). The ethnolichenology of Wila (Bryoria fremontii): an important edible lichen of Secwepemc Country and neighboring territories. In Ignace, M. B., Turner, N. J., and Peacock, S. L., eds., Secwepemc People and Plants: Research Papers in Shuswap Ethnobotany. Tacoma, WA: Society of Ethnobiology, pp. 295–335.Google Scholar

Cullis-Suzuki, S., Wyllie-Echeverria, S., Dick, A. K., and Turner, N. J. (2015). Tending the meadows of the sea: a disturbance experiment based on traditional Indigenous harvesting of Zostera marina L. (Zosteraceae) the southern region of Canada’s west coast. Aquatic Botany, 127, 26–34.10.1016/j.aquabot.2015.07.001CrossRef Google Scholar

Curtis, E. S. (1915). The North American Indian: The Kwakiutl, vol. 10. Evanston, IL: Northwestern University Library.Google Scholar

Davidson-Hunt, I. J. (2003). Indigenous lands management, cultural landscapes and Anishinaabe people of Shoal Lake, Northwestern Ontario. Environments, 31(1), 21–41.Google Scholar

Deur, D. (2000). A domesticated landscape: Native American plant cultivation on the Northwest Coast of North America. PhD dissertation, Louisiana State University.Google Scholar

Deur, D. (2005). Tending the garden, making the soil: Northwest Coast estuarine gardens as engineered environments. In Deur, D. and Turner, N. J., eds., Keeping It Living: Traditions of Plant Use and Cultivation on the Northwest Coast of North America. Vancouver, BC: UBC Press, pp. 296–330.Google Scholar

Deur, D. (2009). “A caretaker responsibility”: revisiting Klamath and Modoc traditions of plant community management. Journal of Ethnobiology, 29, 296–322.10.2993/0278-0771-29.2.296CrossRef Google Scholar

Deur, D. (2022). Gifted Earth: The Ethnobotany of Quinault and Neighboring Tribes. Corvallis, OR: Oregon State University Press.10.1353/book88903CrossRef Google Scholar

Deur, D., Dick, A., Recalma-Clutesi, K., and Turner, N. J. (2015). Kwakwaka’wakw “clam gardens”: motive and agency in traditional Northwest Coast mariculture. Human Ecology, 43, 201–12.10.1007/s10745-015-9743-3CrossRef Google Scholar

Deur, D., Evanoff, K., and Hebert, J. (2020). “Their markers as they go”: modified trees as waypoints in the Dena’ina cultural landscape, Alaska. Human Ecology, 48, 317–33.CrossRef Google Scholar

Deur, D., Recalma-Clutesi, K., and Dick, A. (2020a). “When God put daylight on Earth we had one voice”: Kwakwaka’wakw perspectives on sustainability and the rights of nature. In LaFollette, C. and Maser, C., eds., Sustainability and the Rights of Nature in Practise. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press, pp. 89–111.Google Scholar

Deur, D., Recalma-Clutesi, K., and Dick, A. (2020b). Balance on every ledger: Kwakwaka’wakw resource values and traditional ecological management. In Thornton, T. and Bhagwat, S., eds., The Routledge Handbook of Indigenous Environmental Knowledge. London: Routledge, pp. 126–35.Google Scholar

Deur, D. and Turner, N. J. (2005). Keeping It Living: Traditions of Plant Use and Cultivation on the Northwest Coast of North America. Seattle, WA: University of Washington Press.Google Scholar

Dick, A., Sewid-Smith, D., Recalma-Clutesi, K., Deur, D., and Turner, N. J. (2022). “From the beginning of time”: the colonial reconfiguration of native habitats and Indigenous resource practices on the British Columbia coast. Facets, 7(1), 543–70.CrossRef Google Scholar

Douglas, J. (1842). Letter to John McLoughlin, Hudsons Bay Company, July 12, 1842. In Correspondence between the Chairman of the Hudson’s Bay Company and the Secretary of State for the Colonies, relative to the Colonization of Vancouver’s Island, vol. 9, session 1849. London: Great Britain Parliamentary Sessional Papers: House of Lords, Accounts and Papers, pp. 5–7.Google Scholar

Drucker, P. (1951). The Northern and Central Nootkan Tribes. Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution.Google Scholar

Earnshaw, J., ed. (2017a). Culturally modified trees, Part I. The Midden, 47(2), 1–33.Google Scholar

Earnshaw, J., ed. (2017b). Culturally modified trees, Part II. The Midden, 47(3), 1–53.Google Scholar

Eldridge, M. (1997). The Significance and Management of Culturally Modified Trees. Final report prepared for Vancouver Forest Region and CMT Standards Steering Committee. www.for.gov.bc.ca/ftp/archaeology/external/!publish/web/culturally_modified_trees_significance_management.pdf (accessed June 9, 2013).Google Scholar

Ford, J. and Martinez, D. eds. (2000). Traditional ecological knowledge, ecosystem science and environmental management. Ecological Applications, Special Issue, 10(5), 1249–50.Google Scholar

Fowler, C. S. and Lepofsky, D. (2011). Traditional resource and environmental management. In Anderson, E. N., et al., eds., Ethnobiology. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley-Blackwell, pp. 285–304.10.1002/9781118015872.ch17CrossRef Google Scholar

Franklin, J. and Dyrness, C. T. (1973). Natural Vegetation of Oregon and Washington, Technical Report PNW-8. Washington, DC: US Department of Agriculture General.Google Scholar

Gill, S. (1984). Ethnobotany of the Makah People, Olympic Peninsula, Washington. Neah Bay, WA: Makah Language Program.Google Scholar

Gomes, T. (2012). Restoring Tl’chés: an ethnoecological restoration study in Chatham Islands, British Columbia, Canada. MA thesis, University of Victoria.Google Scholar

Helm, J., and Sturtevant, W. C., eds. (1982). Handbook of North American Indians: Subarctic, vol. 6. Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution.Google Scholar

Hoffmann, T., Lyons, N., Miller, D., et al. (2016). Engineered feature used to enhance gardening at a 3800-year-old site on the Pacific Northwest coast. Science Advances, 2, e1601282.10.1126/sciadv.1601282CrossRef Google Scholar

Hunn, E. S., Johnson, D. R., Russell, P. N., and Thornton, T. F. (2003). Huna Tlingit traditional environmental knowledge, conservation, and the management of a “wilderness” park. Current Anthropology, 44, S79–103.10.1086/377666CrossRef Google Scholar

Hunn, E. S. and Selam, J. (1990). Nch’i-Wana, “The Big River”: Mid-Columbia Indians and Their Land. Seattle, WA: University of Washington Press.Google Scholar

Ignace, M., Ignace, R. E., and Turner, N. J. (2017). Re Styecwmenúl’ecws-kucw/ How we look(ed) after our land. In Ignace, M. and Ignace, R. E., eds., Secwépemc People, Land, and Laws. Yerí7 re Stsq’ey’s-kucw. Montreal, QC: McGill-Queen’s University Press, pp. 145–219.10.1515/9780773552036-011CrossRef Google Scholar

Ignace, M. B., Turner, N. J., and Peacock, S. L. (2016). Secwepemc People and Plants: Research Papers in Shuswap Ethnobotany. Society of Ethnobiology, Contributions in Ethnobiology. Kamloops, BC: Shuswap Nation Tribal Council.Google Scholar

Johnson, L. M. G. (1992). Use of Cinder Conk (Inonotus obliquus) by the Gitksan of northwestern British Columbia, Canada. Journal of Ethnobiology, 12(1), 153–56.Google Scholar

Johnson, L. M. G. (1994). Wet’suwet’en ethnobotany: traditional plant uses. Journal of Ethnobiology, 14(2), 185–210.Google Scholar

Johnson, L. M. and Hunn, E. S. (2010). Landscape ethnoecology: reflections. In Johnson, L. M and Hunn, E. S., eds., Landscape Ethnoecology: Concepts of Biotic and Physical Space. New York: Berghahn Books, pp. 279–97.10.3167/9781845456139CrossRef Google Scholar

Joseph, L. S. (2012). Finding our roots: ethnoecological restoration of Lhásem (Fritillaria camschatcensis (L.) Ker-Gawl), an iconic plant food in the Squamish River Estuary, British Columbia. MSc thesis, University of Victoria.Google Scholar

Joseph, L. S. and Turner, N. J. (2020). “The old foods are the new foods!”: reviving Indigenous foods in northwestern North America. Frontiers in Sustainable Food Systems, Special Issue, 4, 596237.10.3389/fsufs.2020.596237CrossRef Google Scholar

Kimmerer, R. W. (2013). Braiding Sweetgrass. Indigenous Wisdom, Scientific Knowledge and the Teachings of Plants. Minneapolis, MN: Milkweed Editions.Google Scholar

Kimmerer, R. W. and Lake, F. K. (2001). Maintaining the mosaic: the role of Indigenous burning in land management. Journal of Forestry, 99, 36–41.10.1093/jof/99.11.36CrossRef Google Scholar

King, L. (2004). Competing knowledge systems in the management of fish and forests in the Pacific Northwest. International Environmental Agreements: Politics, Law and Economics, 4, 161–77.10.1023/B:INEA.0000040418.31663.61CrossRef Google Scholar

Kuhnlein, H. V., Erasmus, B., Spigelski, D., and Burlingame, B. (2013). Indigenous Peoples’ Food Systems & Well-being: Interventions & Policies for Healthy Communities. Rome, Italy: Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations.Google Scholar

Lantz, T. and Turner, N. J. (2003). Traditional phenological knowledge of aboriginal peoples in British Columbia. Journal of Ethnobiology, 23(2), 1–6.Google Scholar

Lepofsky, D. (2009). Traditional resource management: past, present and future. Journal of Ethnobiology, Special Issue, 29(2), 184–212.Google Scholar

Lepofsky, D. and Armstrong, C. G. (2018). Foraging new ground: documenting ancient resource and environmental management in Canadian archaeology. Canadian Journal of Archaeology/Journal Canadien d’Archéologie, 42, 57–73.Google Scholar

Lepofsky, D. and Caldwell, M. (2013). Indigenous marine resource management on the northwest coast of North America. Ecological Processes, 2, 1–12.10.1186/2192-1709-2-12CrossRef Google Scholar

Lepofsky, D. and Lertzman, K. P. (2008). Documenting ancient plant management in the northwest of North America. Botany, 86, 129–45.Google Scholar

Lepofsky, D. and Lertzman, K. P. (2019). Through the lens of the land: reflections from archaeology, ethnoecology, and environmental science on collaborations with First Nations, 1970s to the present. BC Studies, 200, 141–60.Google Scholar

Lewis, H. (1993). Patterns of Indian burning in California: ecology and ethnohistory. Original 1973. In T. C. Blackburn, M. K. Anderson, , eds., Before the Wilderness: Environmental Management by Native Californians. Menlo Park, CA: Ballena, pp. 55–116.Google Scholar

Lightfoot, K. G., Cuthrell, R. Q., Striplen, C. J., and Hylkema, M. G. (2013a). Rethinking the study of landscape management practices among hunter-gatherers in North America. American Antiquity, 78, 285–301.10.7183/0002-7316.78.2.285CrossRef Google Scholar

Lightfoot, K. G., Cuthrell, R. Q., Boone, C. M., et al. (2013b). Anthropogenic burning on the central California coast in late Holocene and early historical times: findings, implications, and future directions. California Archaeology, 5(2), 371–90.10.1179/1947461X13Z.00000000020CrossRef Google Scholar

Lightfoot, K. G. and Lopez, V. (2013). The study of Indigenous management practices in California: an introduction. California Archaeology, 5(2), 209–19.10.1179/1947461X13Z.00000000011CrossRef Google Scholar

Lloyd, T. A. (2011). Cultivating the Taki’lakw, the ethnoecology of Tleksem, Pacific Silverweed …: lessons from Clan Chief Kwaxsistalla of the Dzawada7enuxw Kwakwaka’wakw of Kingcome Inlet. MSc thesis, University of Victoria.Google Scholar

Lyons, N., Hoffmann, T., Miller, D., et al. (2018). Katzie & the Wapato: an archaeological love story. Archaeologies: Journal of the World Archaeological Congress, 14, 7–29.10.1007/s11759-018-9333-2CrossRef Google Scholar

Mack, C. A. and McClure, R. H. (2002). Vaccinium processing in the Washington Cascades. Journal of Ethnobiology, 22(1), 35–60.Google Scholar

Maffi, L. and Woodley, E. (2012). Biocultural Diversity Conservation: A Global Sourcebook. Abingdon, UK: Routledge.CrossRef Google Scholar

Marine Planning Partnership Initiative (2015). Haida Gwaii Marine Plan. Haida Nation & Province of British Columbia. www.haidanation.ca/wp-content/uploads/2017/05/MarinePlan_HaidaGwaii_WebVer_21042015-opt-1.pdf (accessed February 6, 2021).Google Scholar

Mathews, D. (2017). Savannahs of living fuel: the coast Salish management of Douglas-fir bark fuel. Society of Ethnobiology conference presentation, May, 11 2017, 15:15. https://ethnobiology.org/conference/abstracts/40/savannahs-living-fuel-coast-salish-management-douglas-fir-bark-fuel.Google Scholar

Maud, R. (1978). The Salish People: The Local Contribution of Charles Hill-Tout: The Mainland Halkomelem, vol. 3. Vancouver, BC: Talonbooks.Google Scholar

McDonald, J. (2005). Cultivating in the Northwest: early accounts of Tsimshian horticulture. In Deur, D. and Turner, N. J., eds., Keeping It Living: Traditions of Plant Use and Cultivation on the Northwest Coast of North America. Vancouver, BC: UBC Press, pp. 240–73.Google Scholar

Menzies, C. R. (2006a). Ecological knowledge, subsistence, and livelihood practices: the case of the pine mushroom harvest in northwestern British Columbia. In Menzie, C. R., ed., Traditional Ecological Knowledge and Natural Resource Management. Lincoln, NB: University of Nebraska Press, pp. 99–116.10.5250/9780803232464CrossRef Google Scholar

Menzies, C. R. (2006b). Traditional Ecological Knowledge and Natural Resource Management. Lincoln, NB: University of Nebraska Press.10.5250/9780803232464CrossRef Google Scholar

Minnis, P. E. and Elisens, W. J. (2000). Biodiversity and Native America. Norman, OK: University of Oklahoma Press.Google Scholar

Moss, M. L. (2005). Tlingit horticulture: an Indigenous or introduced development? In Deur, D. and Turner, N. J., eds., Keeping It Living: Traditions of Plant Use and Cultivation on the Northwest Coast of North America. Vancouver, BC: UBC Press, pp. 274–95.Google Scholar

Nelson, R. K. (1983). Make Prayers to the Raven: A Koyukon View of the Northern Forest. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar

Norton, H. H. (1979a). The association between anthropogenic prairies and important food plants in western Washington. Northwest Anthropological Research Notes, 13(2), 175–200.Google Scholar

Norton, H. H. (1979b). Evidence for bracken fern as a food for aboriginal peoples of western Washington. Economic Botany, 33(4), 384–96.10.1007/BF02858334CrossRef Google Scholar

Peacock, S. L. (1998). Putting down roots: the emergence of wild plant food production on the Canadian Plateau. PhD dissertation, University of Victoria.Google Scholar

Peacock, S. L. and Turner, N. J. (2000). “Just like a garden”: traditional plant resource management and biodiversity conservation on the British Columbia plateau. In Minnis, P. E. and Elisens, W. J., eds., Biodiversity and Native North America. Norman, OK: University of Oklahoma Press, pp. 133–79.Google Scholar

Phillips, P. W. (2016). Ethnobotany of the Coos, Lower Umpqua, and Siuslaw Indians. Corvallis, OR: Oregon State University Press.Google Scholar

Pinkerton, E. (2019). Benefits of collaboration between Indigenous and non-Indigenous communities through community forests in British Columbia. Canadian Journal of Forest Research, 49(4), 387–94.10.1139/cjfr-2018-0154CrossRef Google Scholar

Popper, K. (1959). The Logic of Scientific Discovery. Abingdon, UK: Routledge.Google Scholar

Posey, D. A. and Balée, W. (1989). Resource Management in Amazonia: Advances in Economic Botany, vol. 7. New York: New York Botanical Garden.Google Scholar

Routson, K. J., Volk, G. M., Richards, C. M., et al. (2012). Genetic variation and distribution of Pacific crabapple. Journal of the American Society of Horticultural Science, 137(5), 325–32.10.21273/JASHS.137.5.325CrossRef Google Scholar

Schoonmaker, P. K., Von Hagen, B., and Wolf, E. C. (1997). The Rainforests of Home: Profile of a North American Bioregion. Washington, DC: Island Press.Google Scholar

Senos, R., Lake, F., Turner, N. J., and Martinez, D. (2006). Traditional ecological knowledge and restoration practice in the Pacific Northwest. In Apostol, D., ed.,Encyclopedia for Restoration of Pacific Northwest Ecosystems. Washington, DC: Island Press, pp. 393–426.Google Scholar

Sewid-Smith, D. M., Dick, A. K., and Turner, N. J. (1998). The sacred cedar tree of the Kwakwaka’wakw people. In Bol, M., ed., Stars Above, Earth Below: Native Americans and Nature. Pittsburgh, PA: Carnegie Museum of Natural History, pp. 189–209.Google Scholar

Shebitz, D. J., Reichard, S. H., and Dunwiddy, P. W. (2009). Ecological and cultural significance of burning beargrass habitat on the Olympic Peninsula, Washington. Ecological Restoration 27(3), 306–19.10.3368/er.27.3.306CrossRef Google Scholar

Smith, B. D. (2005). Low-level food production and the Northwest Coast. In Deur, D. and Turner, N. J., eds., Keeping It Living: Traditions of Plant Use and Cultivation on the Northwest Coast of North America. Seattle, WA: University of Washington Press, pp. 37–66.Google Scholar

Snively, G. and Williams, W. L. (2016). Knowing Home: Braiding Indigenous Science with Western Science, book 1. Victoria, BC: University of Victoria Pressbooks.Google Scholar

Stevens, M. L. (2004a). White root (Carex barbarae). Fremontia, 32(4), 3–6.Google Scholar

Stevens, M. L. (2004b). Ethnoecology of selected California wetland plants. Fremontia, 32(4), 7–15.Google Scholar

Suttles, W. P. (1990). Handbook of North American Indians: Northwest Coast, vol. 7. Washington DC: Smithsonian Institution.Google Scholar

Suttles, W. P. (2005). Coast Salish resource management: incipient agriculture? In Deur, D. and Turner, N. J., eds., Keeping It Living: Traditions of Plant Use and Cultivation on the Northwest Coast of North America. Vancouver, BC: UBC Press, pp. 181–93.Google Scholar

Thornton, T. F. (1999). Tleikw aaní, the “berried” landscape: the structure of Tlingit edible fruit resources at Glacier Bay, Alaska. Journal of Ethnobiology, 19(1), 27–48.Google Scholar

Thornton, T. F. (2008). Being and Place among the Tlingit. Seattle, WA: University of Washington Press.Google Scholar

Thornton, T. F. (2015). The ideology and practice of Pacific herring cultivation among the Tlingit and Haida. Human Ecology, 43(2), 213–23.Google Scholar

Trosper, R. L. and Parrotta, J. A. (2012). Traditional Forest-Related Knowledge. Sustaining Communities, Ecosystems and Biocultural Diversity. Dordrecht, Switzerland: Springer.Google Scholar

Trusler, S. and Johnson, L. M. (2008). “Berry patch” as a kind of place: the ethnoecology of black huckleberry in northwestern Canada. Human Ecology, 36, 553–68.10.1007/s10745-008-9176-3CrossRef Google Scholar

Turner, N. J. (2003). The ethnobotany of “edible seaweed” (Porphyra abbottiae Krishnamurthy and related species; Rhodophyta: Bangiales) and its use by First Nations on the Pacific coast of Canada. Canadian Journal of Botany, 81(2), 283–93.10.1139/b03-029CrossRef Google Scholar

Turner, N. J. (2005). The Earth’s Blanket. Traditional Teachings for Sustainable Living. Vancouver, BC: Douglas & McIntyre.Google Scholar

Turner, N. J. (2006). From the roots: Indigenous root vegetables of British Columbia, their management and conservation. In Ertug, Z. F., ed., Conference Proceedings of the Fourth International Congress of Ethnobotany (ICEB 2005), Ethnobotany: At the Junction of the Continents and Disciplines. Istanbul, Turkey: Yeditepe University Yayinlari, pp. 57–64.Google Scholar

Turner, N. J. (2014). Ancient Pathways, Ancestral Knowledge: Ethnobotany and Ecological Wisdom of Indigenous Peoples of Northwestern North America, 2 vols. McGill-Queen’s Native and Northern Series Number 74. Montreal, QC: McGill-Queen’s University Press.CrossRef Google Scholar

Turner, N. J. (2020a). From “taking” to “tending”: learning about Indigenous land and resource management on the Pacific Northwest coast of North America. ICES Journal of Marine Science, 77(7–8), 2472–82.10.1093/icesjms/fsaa095CrossRef Google Scholar

Turner, N. J. (2020b). Plants, People, and Places: the Roles of Ethnobotany and Ethnoecology in Indigenous Peoples’ Land Rights in Canada and Beyond. Montreal, QC: McGill-Queen’s University Press.CrossRef Google Scholar

Turner, N. J. (2021). Plants of Haida Gwaii. Xaadaa Gwaay guud gina k’aws (Skidegate), Xaadaa Gwaayee guu giin k’aws (Massett), 3rd ed. Madeira Park, BC: Harbour Publishing.Google Scholar

Turner, N. J., Ari, Y., Berkes, F., et al. (2009). Cultural management of living trees: an international perspective. Journal of Ethnobiology, 29(2), 237–70.10.2993/0278-0771-29.2.237CrossRef Google Scholar

Turner, N. J., Armstrong, C. G., and Lepofsky, D. L. (2021). Adopting a root: documenting ecological and cultural signatures of plant translocations in northwestern North America. American Anthropologist, 123(4), 879–97.CrossRef Google Scholar

Turner, N. J. and Berkes, F. (2006). Coming to understanding: developing conservation through incremental learning. Human Ecology, 34(4), 495–513.10.1007/s10745-006-9042-0CrossRef Google Scholar

Turner, N. J., Bouchard, R., and Kennedy, D. I. D. (1981). Ethnobotany of the Okanagan-Colville Indians of British Columbia and Washington. Victoria, BC: British Columbia Provincial Museum.Google Scholar

Turner, N. J. and Clifton, H. (2006). “The forest and the seaweed”: Gitga’at seaweed, traditional ecological knowledge and community survival. In Menzies, C., ed.,Traditional Ecological Knowledge and Natural Resource Management. Lincoln, NB: University of Nebraska, pp. 65–86.Google Scholar

Turner, N. J. and Cuerrier, A. (2022). “Frog’s umbrella” and “ghost’s face powder”: the cultural roles of mushrooms and other fungi for Canadian Indigenous peoples. Botany 100(2), 183–205.CrossRef Google Scholar

Turner, N. J., Deur, D., and Lepofsky, D. (2013). Plant management systems of British Columbia’s First Peoples. BC Studies: The British Columbian Quarterly, 179, 107–33.Google Scholar

Turner, N. J., Deur, D., and Mellott, C. R. (2011). “Up on the mountain”: ethnobotanical importance of montane ecosystems in Pacific coastal North America. Journal of Ethnobiology, 31(1), 4–43.10.2993/0278-0771-31.1.4CrossRef Google Scholar

Turner, N. J., Gregory, R., Brooks, C., Failing, L. and Satterfield, T. (2008). From invisibility to transparency: identifying the implications (of invisible losses to First Nations communities). Ecology and Society, 13(2), 7.10.5751/ES-02405-130207CrossRef Google Scholar

Turner, N. J. and Hebda, R. J. (2012). Saanich Ethnobotany: Culturally Important Plants of the WSÁNEĆ (Saanich) People of Southern Vancouver Island. Victoria, BC: Royal BC Museum.Google Scholar

Turner, N. J., Ignace, M. B., and Ignace, R. E. (2000). Traditional ecological knowledge and wisdom of aboriginal peoples in British Columbia. Ecological Applications, 10(10), 181–93.10.1890/1051-0761(2000)010[1275:TEKAWO]2.0.CO;2CrossRef Google Scholar

Turner, N. J. and Kuhnlein, H. V. (1983). Camas (Camassia spp.) and riceroot (Fritillaria spp.): two Liliaceous “root” foods of the Northwest Coast Indians. Ecology of Food and Nutrition, 13, 199–219.CrossRef Google Scholar

Turner, N. J., Kuhnlein, H. V., and Egger, K. N. (1986). The cottonwood mushroom (Tricholoma populinum Lange): a food resource of the interior Salish peoples of British Columbia. Canadian Journal of Botany, 65, 921–27Google Scholar

Turner, N. J. and Loewen, D. C. (1998). The original “free trade”: exchange of botanical products and associated plant knowledge in northwestern North America. Anthropologica, XL, 49–70.10.2307/25605872CrossRef Google Scholar

Turner, N. J. and Mathews, D. (2020). Serving nature: completing the ecosystem services circle. In Bai, H., Chang, D., and Scott, C., eds., A Book of Ecological Virtues: Living Well in the Anthropocene. Regina, SK: University of Regina Press, 3–29.Google Scholar

Turner, N. J. and Peacock, S. (2005). “Solving the perennial paradox”: ethnobotanical evidence for plant resource management on the Northwest Coast. In Deur, D. and Turner, N. J., eds., Keeping It Living: Traditions of Plant Use and Cultivation on the Northwest Coast of North America. Seattle, WA: University of Washington Press, pp. 101–50.Google Scholar

Turner, N. J., Smith, R. Y., and Jones, J. T. (2005). “A fine line between two nations”: ownership patterns for plant resources among Northwest Coast Indigenous peoples – implications for plant conservation and management. In Deur, D. and Turner, N. J., eds., Keeping It Living: Traditions of Plant Use and Cultivation on the Northwest Coast of North America. Seattle, WA: University of Washington Press, pp. 151–80.Google Scholar

Turner, N. J. and Taylor, R. L. (1972). A review of the Northwest Coast tobacco mystery. Syesis, 5, 249–57.Google Scholar

Turner, N. J. and Thompson, J. C. (2006). Plants of the Gitga’at People. ‘Nwana’a lax Yuup. Hartley Bay, BC: Gitga’at Nation and Coasts Under Stress Research Project.Google Scholar

Turner, N. J. and Turner, K. L. (2008). “Where our women used to get the food”: cumulative effects and loss of ethnobotanical knowledge and practice. Botany, 86(1), 103–15.Google Scholar

Walker, D. E., Jr. (1998). Handbook of North American Indians: Plateau, vol. 12. Washington DC: Smithsonian Institution.Google Scholar

Weiser, A. and Lepofsky, D. (2009). Ancient land use and management of Ebey’s Prairie, Whidbey Island, Washington. Journal of Ethnobiology, 29(2), 161–66.10.2993/0278-0771-29.2.184CrossRef Google Scholar

Williams, N. M. and Hunn, E. N. (1982). Resource Managers: North American and Australian Hunter-Gatherers. Boulder, CO: Westview.Google Scholar

Accessibility standard: Unknown

Why this information is here

This section outlines the accessibility features of this content - including support for screen readers, full keyboard navigation and high-contrast display options. This may not be relevant for you.

Accessibility Information

Accessibility compliance for the HTML of this chapter is currently unknown and may be updated in the future.