Garrod’s 1928 excavations

In 1928, Dorothy Garrod (Reference Garrod1930) undertook pioneering excavations at Zarzi and Hazar Merd Cave, located in the Slemani district of the Kurdistan Region, approximately 178km south-east of Shanidar Cave (Figure 1). Before her work, most Palaeolithic research in South-west Asia focused on the Levant. These investigations therefore marked a major expansion into the eastern Fertile Crescent and laid the foundations for modern Palaeolithic studies in the Zagros.

Figure 1.

Above) map of the Middle East showing the location of the Zagros Mountains, and Hazar Merd and Shanidar caves; inset) image of Dorothy Garrod, who conducted the first excavations at the Hazar Merd cave complex (image after: wisarchive.com); below) general view of the Hazar Merd cave complex; the red arrow indicates the main cave, Ashkawty Tarik (photograph by S.H. Guran).

Figure 1 Long description

The image consists of three elements: a map, an inset photo, and a landscape photo. The map shows the Middle East with the Zagros Mountains, Hazar Merd, and Shanidar caves highlighted. The inset photo features Dorothy Garrod, who conducted the first excavations at Hazar Merd. The landscape photo displays the Hazar Merd cave complex, with a red arrow pointing to the main cave, Ashkawty Tarik. The map provides geographical context, while the inset and landscape photos offer visual documentation of the archaeological site and its explorer.

Hazar Merd consists of six caves positioned along the Baranan Ridge overlooking present-day Slemani. Although Garrod excavated five, the richest Palaeolithic evidence came from Ashkawty Tarik (Dark Cave). During a 16-day field season, Garrod excavated roughly one-third of the cave interior, concentrating on the front sector (Figure 2). Her work revealed a deep and well-stratified sequence extending from the Bronze Age through the Middle Palaeolithic. Garrod distinguished three main levels: level A, a disturbed 1–2m deposit with multiperiod burials and sediments of varied colours; level B, a 10–20mm layer containing a small number of Upper Palaeolithic (c. 40 ka) artefacts; and level C, a substantial 0.50–3.9m Mousterian deposit with hearths, burnt flints and abundant faunal remains, indicating intensive Middle Palaeolithic (c. 250–40 ka) occupation (Garrod Reference Garrod1930).

Figure 2.

Above) interior view of Ashkawty Tarik Cave showing exposed stratigraphy during Dorothy Garrod’s 1928 excavation (after Garrod Reference Garrod1930, fig. 12b); below) present-day surface conditions in the cave; three Kurdish archaeology students stand in approximately the same locations as the individuals in the earlier photograph (photograph by S.H. Guran).

Figure 2 Long description

The image consists of two photos placed side by side. The top photo captures the interior view of Ashkawty Tarik Cave during Dorothy Garrod’s 1928 excavation. It shows the exposed stratigraphy of the cave, with three individuals standing at different levels, highlighting the archaeological layers. The bottom photo presents the current surface conditions of the same cave. Three Kurdish archaeology students are standing in positions that correspond to the individuals in the earlier photograph, providing a comparative view of the cave’s condition over time. The photos illustrate the changes and continuity in the cave’s stratigraphy and archaeological significance.

The Mousterian assemblage contained blades, narrow tools and gravers resembling Levantine Mousterian industries rather than European variants. Two handaxes at the base suggested technological continuity with the Late Acheulian. Garrod therefore proposed that the sequence at Ashkawty Tarik represented a transitional phase between the Late Acheulian, Middle and Upper Palaeolithic periods (Garrod Reference Garrod1930), highlighting the site’s significance for understanding cultural evolution in South-west Asia.

Revisiting Hazar Merd: the 2025 excavations

In May 2025, renewed excavations commenced at the Hazar Merd cave complex. The outlines of Garrod’s excavations remained visible, allowing precise identification of trench locations. Ashkawty Tarik is a north-facing karst cave about 40m deep and 12m wide, with an interior area of roughly 350m² (Figure 3). Three new trenches were opened: one in the central area, where Garrod had identified both Upper and Middle Palaeolithic deposits, and two along the cave walls targeting deeper Middle Palaeolithic layers. All trenches revealed well-preserved archaeological deposits containing abundant lithic artefacts and faunal remains (Figure 4). In the central trench (M500-502), Upper Palaeolithic blades and cores were recovered from layer C-A2, approximately 0.40m thick, directly overlying Middle Palaeolithic deposits (C-A3–5) (Figure 3). These findings contrast with Garrod’s earlier description of a very thin Upper Palaeolithic layer. The Middle Palaeolithic assemblage exhibits clear Levallois technology (Figure 4, nos. 1–7), including both preferential and recurrent core reduction strategies, with lithics displaying features both typical of the Zagros Mousterian (Heydari-Guran Reference Heydari-Guran2025) and Levantine-style tools, possibly indicating that the site represents a mixed techno-typology.

Figure 3.

a) Interior view of Ashkawty Tarik Cave; b) view of the cave entrance showing the new gate and excavation team; c) plan and topographic map of the cave indicating the excavation areas from 1928 and 2025; d) stratigraphic profile showing the southern section of trench M500–502; stratigraphic unit C-A2 yielded Upper Palaeolithic material, while unit C-A3 contained a rich assemblage of Levallois artefacts (figure by S.H. Guran, cave map by F. Azizi & S.H. Guran).

Figure 3 Long description

The image consists of four distinct elements: a photo, a group photo, a map, and a stratigraphic profile. The first element is a photo of the interior view of Ashkawty Tarik Cave, showing ongoing excavation activities with marked sections and tools. The second element is a group photo of the excavation team standing in front of the cave entrance, which features a new gate. The third element is a plan and topographic map of the cave, indicating the excavation areas from 1928 and 2025, with various symbols representing different findings such as lithic artifacts, bones, and charcoal. The fourth element is a stratigraphic profile of the southern section of trench M500-502, highlighting different stratigraphic units, including C-A2 and C-A3, which yielded Upper Palaeolithic material and Levallois artifacts respectively. The images are arranged side-by-side to provide a comprehensive view of the excavation process and findings.

Figure 4.

Selected Middle Palaeolithic artefacts recovered from the 2025 test trenches at Ashkawty Tarik Cave. Lithics: 1) inversely retouched Levallois flake; 2 & 3) Levallois points; 4) Levallois side scraper; 5–7) convergent scrapers. Bones: 8) proximal Bovidae phalanx; 9) medial Bovidae phalanx; 10) proximal Capra sp. phalanx; 11) proximal Bovidae phalanx with cut mark (figure by S.H. Guran).

Figure 4 Long description

The image displays a collection of Middle Palaeolithic artefacts and bones recovered from the 2025 test trenches at Ashkawty Tarik Cave in the Zagros Mountains. The lithic artefacts include an inversely retouched Levallois flake, Levallois points, a Levallois side scraper, and convergent scrapers. The bone fragments include a proximal Bovidae phalanx, a medial Bovidae phalanx, a proximal Capra sp. phalanx, and a proximal Bovidae phalanx with a cut mark. These artefacts and bones are significant for understanding the cultural and environmental developments during key periods of human prehistory in the region.

Faunal remains, especially teeth and phalanges of Bos and Capra, are numerous and provide insights into subsistence strategies (Figure 4, nos. 8–11). The concentration of faunal material in the wall trenches may reflect structured behaviours and the functional use of space. Post-depositional processes could also have influenced this distribution; continued excavation and spatial analysis will help clarify these patterns.

Planned research method

The European Research Council-funded Synergy Grant ‘The last Neanderthals’ aims to reconstruct human evolutionary history between 60 and 40 ka, a period marking the final stages of Neanderthal existence and increased interactions with anatomically modern humans. As part of this, the Hazar Merd Cave Revisiting Project uses optically stimulated luminescence (Stony Brook University) and radiocarbon dating (Curt-Engelhorn-Zentrum Archäometrie, Mannheim) to develop a secure chronological framework for the cave’s deep stratigraphy; sedimentology, micromorphology and cave-formation studies (University of Siena) to reconstruct depositional processes and assess site taphonomy; attribute-based studies to examine reduction strategies, tool production and use (University of Cologne); sedimentary ancient DNA (sedaDNA; University of Tübingen) (Figure 5) to reconstruct past biodiversity and detect possible hominin genetic traces; and zooarchaeology by mass spectrometry (ZooMS; University of Bologna) to identify taxonomic groups among fragmentary bones. These integrated methods will allow detailed reconstruction of cultural transitions, environmental conditions and potential population movements at Hazar Merd beyond what was possible in the early twentieth century.

Figure 5.

Sediment sampling for OSL dating and ancient soil DNA analysis conducted under controlled low-light conditions at Hazar Merd (photograph by S.H. Guran).

Figure 5 Long description

A person wearing protective clothing and a headlamp is seen collecting sediment samples in a dimly lit cave. The individual is kneeling on the cave floor, carefully gathering samples under controlled low-light conditions. The cave walls are illuminated with a reddish hue, highlighting the rough texture and geological features of the surroundings. The scene suggests a scientific excavation or research activity focused on sediment sampling for dating and ancient soil DNA analysis.