Index
Please note: page numbers in italic type indicate figures or tables
23andme.com, 64
accuracy in parameter estimation (AIPE),
animal testing, sampling and, 5
archival data
analyses and interpretation of,
definition, 571
primary, 572
secondary, 575
Australian Bureau of Statistics, 130
Basil, M. D., 12
behavioral measures, limitations, 497
behavioral science research, designing, 163
Bernard, H. R., 579
Bessel, Friedrich, 374
Big Q approach
comparison with small q research, 549
data saturation and, 562
open-ended survey questions, 565
Black Lives Matter movement, 58
Bollen, K. A., 200
Brexit, political micro-targeting and, 62
Business Longitudinal Analysis Data Environment (BLADE), 130
Buzan, T., 277
California Consumer Privacy Act (CCPA), 65
Cambridge Analytica,
Canada, Personal Information Protection and Electronic Documents Act (PIPEDA), 65
cardiovascular measures of health, , 464
overview,
electronic medical records (EMR) and, 466
improving health equity,
invasive
overview, 462
angiography vs. electrophysiology, 462
coronary angiography,
electrophysiology (EP), 463
mobile technologies and,
challenges with wearables,
non-invasive
blood pressure,
special considerations, 457
electrocardiography (ECG)
12-lead ECG measures for research, 458
example electrocardiogram, 460
heart rate variability (HRV),
home testing kits, 467
Mason-Likert lead configuration, 461
methods,
research examples, 464
variables,
home ECG testing kits, 468
toilet-seat-based monitoring, 468
point-of-care tests (POCT),
validation of psychometrics data, 465
case studies
choices and dilemmas, 616
case selection, 621
comparison of quantitative approaches, 617
design choices, 620
epistemological approaches,
formulation of the research question,
grounded theory approach, 620
holistic or embedded design, 622
number of cases,
process analysis,
researchers’ roles, 623
combines participant/researcher,
complete participant,
consultant,
pure researcher, 624
templates, 619
the concept, 617
time of sampling,
ChatGPT, 60
China, banning of Western social media applications, 49
cognitive interviewing, 107
convenience samples
cost efficiency, 8
exploratory purposes, 11
history, 10
testing relationships using, 12
COVID-19 pandemic
point-of-care-tests (POCT), 466
remote, personalized self-care, 467
SARS-CoV-2 rapid at-home self-tests, 466
tracking the psychological effects, 60
Creswell, J. W., 617
Crow, G.,
CrowdFlower (Figure Eight), 86
crowdsourcing
as solution to the replication crisis,
coining of the term, 51
cultural integration
Barrow Alcohol Study,
Belmont Report, 147
emergence of Indigenous scholarship, 143
ethical considerations,
community-based participatory research (CBPR),
conducting culturally focused research,
context-specific sampling,
evaluating and giving permission for culturally focused research,
exploring culturally sensitive topics, 145
informed consent,
in social and behavioral research,
meaning of culture,
methodological considerations,
cultural translation,
data analysis strategies, 154
ethical and professional issues, 155
interacting with participants,
operationalization/measurement of culture,
recruitment of participants,
multicultural approaches, 142
overview, , 155
percentage of the world’s population represented in APA journals, 141
Cunliffe, A. L., 132
descriptive research, value of in medicine, 10
Diana, Princess of Wales, comparison in reactions to the death of across different samples, 12
Donders, Franciscus, 374,
electrodermal activity (EDA)
overview,
applications
emotion recognition,
pain detection,
psychological applications, 476
seizure detection, 487
sleep research,
stress detection,
basic morphology,
challenges and limitations, 488
data collection,
detection and correction of motion artifacts,
physiomarkers, 480
signal processing, 479
wearable devices, 477
electroencephalography (EEG)
brain electrophysiology as research tool, 519
comparison with other neuroimaging methods,
EEG signals and social processes,
generation of the signal, 520
monetary costs, 523
neurophysiological and biophysical processes represented by,
recording procedure
amplifiers, 525
artifact control strategies, 526
artifact correction,
artifact rejection,
electrode array,
filters, 525
interpolation, 529
sampling rate, 525
research techniques
spectral and time-frequency analysis,
spatial resolution, 523
versatility, 538
electromyography (EMG)
applications for EMG measurement
biofeedback training,
for anxiety disorders, 512
for attention disorders,
for tension-type headaches, 512
facial EMG and emotion,
human–machine interfaces (HMI),
startle and attention,
startle and emotion,
startle eyeblink reflex,
neurobiological bases of muscle activity,
overview,
procedures,
electrode placement, 501
equipment and signal processing,
signal noise reduction,
surface preparation,
steps for implementing EMG measurement, 500
Ellison, Nicole, 49
Evidence in Governance & Politics (EGAP), 109
Exner, Sigmund, 374
experimental research
benefits of homogeneity, 13
potential effects of sample manipulation and, 4
use of in organizational research,
use of observation, 667
use of student samples in, 11,
eyetracking research
accuracy,
data analysis, 415
data quality,
gaze visualization, 417
head-mounted eyetrackers,
head-mounted eyetrackers, VR/AR,
precision,
real-world applications,
remote eyetrackers, 405–
selecting an eyetracker,
summary,
tower eyetrackers, 406
types of eyetrackers, 404
understanding eye movements,
fixations, 400
saccadic,
smooth pursuit,
vestibular-ocular response (VOR), 403
wearable eyetrackers,
Fair Crowd Work, 36
field research
advantages, 95
breadth of research topics, 96
causal testing, 96
ecological validity,
intervention program evaluation,
social impact, 97
assessing the naturalism of a study,
challenges,
definition of “field”, 93
descriptive surveys, 98
design and implementation concerns
attrition,
noncompliance,
spillover,
example research designs, 94
expansion of the field,
experimental methods,
block randomization,
cluster randomization,
simple randomization,
waitlist design,
generalizability, 109
interest in social media, 110
Metaketa Initiative, 109
naturalistic observation, 98
overview, , 111
pilot testing,
qualitative interviews, 98
replicability, 109
technological advancement and,
FindingFive, 28
Finlay, L., 681
focus groups
advantages of the method, 642
application in social and behavioral science,
conducting
example questions, 648
facilitator’s role, 646
preparation and setup, 645
recording and transcription, 649
structure,
data analysis and interpretation, 653
approaches to, ,
content analysis, 657
conversation analysis,
grounded theory analysis, 657
thematic analysis, 656
coding,
of group interaction, 655
definition and key features, 640
design
methodological framework,
participant selection and group composition,
research questions, 642
diversity in composition, 645
ensuring trustworthiness of studies, 658
grounded theory and, 644
guidelines, 658
history, 641
in ethnography studies, 644
limitations of the method, 642
semi-structured approach,
specific populations
children,
culturally and linguistically diverse groups,
online focus groups,
Freire, Paulo, 607
gendercoder, 550
General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR), 65
Gephi software, 58
Glaser, B. G., 579
Gold, R.,
Google, 65
Google Forms, 53
Gorilla, 72,
Grant, A.,
Greene, J. C., 176,
Hagan, J., 681
Heckler Report on Black and Minority Health, 469
Heggestad, E. D., 12
Helmholtz, Hermann von, 374
Hilton, Paris, 573
human behavior and experience, primary areas of assessment, 497
human behavior research, student samples in, 5
interdisciplinary research
career progress and, 279
challenges and strategies,
communication to multiple audiences,
complexity and,
creativity and,
defining interdisciplinarity,
disciplinary insights,
evaluating interdisciplinary research,
integration,
within disciplines,
mixed methods research,
overview, , 280
process, 262
reflection and testing,
team research,
interviews
background research, 599
choice of interviewer, 603
conducting the interview
context, paying attention to, 608
critical reflection,
exiting the field, exercising care, 609
improvisation, value of, 607
listening actively
for progress, 606
for the participant’s inner voice, 606
to what the participant says, 606
to yourself, 607
posing questions with intentionality, 605
rapport, building and sustaining, 604
reciprocity of the interview exchange, 609
data analysis and dissemination
dissemination process,
documenting the interview process, 610
transcription process, 609
writing up findings, 610
overview,
preparation for, 593
choice of appropriate interview type,
consent process, 601
interview guide,
key steps, 594
location of interview, 601
protection of participants, 601
recording devices,
recruitment of participants, 601
sampling,
securing participation, 602
securing resources,
selection of participants, 602
question examples, 598
role in case studies,
Langley, A.,
Language Inquiry Word Count (LIWC), , 63
Lee, S. H., 582
Lewin, Kurt, 17
Leximancer, 551
liquid-chromatography triple quadrupole mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS),
Lyon, D.,
Majority World, meaning of, 141
Maskelyne, Nevil, 374
MAXQDA, 579
Maxwell, J. A., 298
McCormack, N., 672
measuring hormones
biospecimen collection, 428
feces,
hair,
nails,
saliva,
urine, 434
pros and cons, 436
cost and ease of collection, transport and storage, 437
overview,
purpose and action of hormones, 428
statistical constructs, 442
comparisons of pros and cons, 445
diurnal hormones,
ratios and coupling, 445
reactivity and recovery,
techniques
assays, 437
enzyme immunoassay (EIA),
lateral flow immunoassays (LFIA),
liquid-chromatography triple quadrupole mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS),
radioimmunoassay (RIA),
pros and cons to each approach, 442
recommendations and conclusions, 446
Mechanical Turk (mTurk), 129
background,
comparison with other platforms, 80,
concept and function,
cost-effectiveness, 52
disciplines benefiting from use of, 52
example code, 27
graphical user interface, 27
interacting with for research,
“micro-tasks”, 89
number of participants advertised by Amazon, 30
participant activity as a share of worker experience, 34
participants per month, 40
recruitment, 51
replication study, 287
research potential,
sampling
best practices,
strengths, 39
third-party services, 28
worker dashboard, 26
#MeToo movement, 60
Midjourney, 61
Minority World, meaning of, 141
mixed methods research
design recommendations,
focus groups, 641
inclusion of multiple methods, 166
integration,
interdisciplinary research,
meaningful connections, 177
purposes of mixing,
theoretical drive, 179
timing,
triangulation, 177
Mondak, J. J., 355
Mühlenbeck, C., 418
Müller, Johannes, 374
multiple-methods research
definition, 164
design recommendations,
design steps,
emergent design, 172
emerging aspects, 172
emerging data, 175
emerging foci,
emerging subgroups, 176
searching for an explanation,
examples
emergent design, 173
emerging data, 175
explaining differences, 175
exploration, 169
focusing, 173
including groups with varying experience, 168
integration, 170
making decisions in practice, 171
multiple perspectives, 167
in-depth exploration,
integration,
lenses,
including groups with varying experience,
including multiple locations, 167
including multiple methods, 166
including multiple organizational levels, 167
including multiple research questions, 166
including multiple stakeholder perspectives,
making decisions in practice, 171
overview,
multiple methods, 163
Neyman, Jerzy, 3
non-human animals, research on, 5
non-naïve participants, potential impact on research, 83
Nyström, M., 414
observational data
advantages,
analysis of, 676
ethical issues
exiting the field, 679
privacy and confidentiality, 677
researcher safety and well-being, 677
focus and recording of observations,
Hawthorn effect, 679
identifying settings for observation and participant recruitment,
limitations and challenges of observation,
observation as data collection method,
overview, 665
presentation and activities of the observer,
reflexivity and,
research methodologies that use observation,
role of the observer,
OkCupid, 55
online samples, 8
open-ended survey questions (OESQs)
advantages and disadvantages, 551
challenges, 551
definition and purposes,
demographic questions, 550
ethical considerations,
examples, 548
factors influencing response rates, 551
completion mode, 553
demographic factors, 553
motivational statements, 554
order of questions, 554
size of answer box,
overview, 547
question design,
status in the field of qualitative research, 567
strengths,
survey recruitment,
organizational research
cluster randomized controlled trials (CRCT), 125
correlational studies,
data collection
conceptual and contextual considerations,
primary sources,
sampling strategies,
secondary data, 130
sources of data,
defining organizations,
DEI perspective,
design considerations,
dynamism of processes, 120
experimental studies,
exploratory/descriptive studies, 121
levels of analysis, 119
research design,
structures and hierarchies, 119
theory-driven,
units of analysis, 119
physiological measures
Positly, 28
probability sampling, 13
Prolific
advantages, 89
comparison with other platforms, 80, ,
connectivity to research software,
data quality
aspects of,
comparison with other platforms,
ex-ante steps,
ex-post steps,
high,
disadvantages, 90
number of participants and researchers, 73
overview, ,
recruitment, 51
viral TikTok video, 77
Przemieniecki, C. J., 671
psiTurk, 28
psychological research, percentage of the world’s population represented in APA journals, 141
quality control in data collection, attention checks, 52
questionnaire design
acquiescence response bias, 359
adaptive, 557
cognitive processes underlying optimal question answering,
conversational norms and conventions, 354
frequency scales,
implications of data collection mode, 340
internet survey data collection and, 356
multiple select questions, 360
non-substantive response options (NSROs),
open vs. closed questions,
order of questions, 362
overview,
question order effects,
rating scales
branching, 359
middle alternatives, 357
number of scale points, 357
points and labels, 356
slider scales, 357
theory, 357
ratings vs. rankings,
recommendations for improvement,
response order effects, , 360
satisficing behavior and,
social desirability response bias, 335,
wording of questions, 362
reaction time (RT)
brief history,
commonly used measures,
Eriksen flanker task,
sample stimuli, 382
evaluative priming tasks (EPTs),
sample procedure, 383
Go/No-go Association Task (GNAT),
Stroop Color and Word Test (SCWT),
sample stimuli, 380
moderating factors
age, 379
arousal–performance relationship, 377
focus of attention, 377
influence of practice, 378
intensity and complexity of stimuli,
other possible moderators, 379
physiological arousal, 377
sleep deprivation, 377
neurodegenerative conditions and, 379
real-world implications, 375
research software,
comparison of product features, 387
DirectRT,
E-Prime, 388
Inquisit, 389
online and open source tools, 389
SuperLab, 388
statistical analysis of data,
study of, current knowledge,
registered reports
analytic flexibility,
Bayes factors,
inference by intervals, 316
obtaining sensitive results, 314
power, 315
assumptions and outcome neutral tests,
guidance, 319
planning a study,
planning considerations, 322
pre-registration, 306
pros and cons,
scientific background,
substantial theory, function of, 310
reliability of measures
basics and definition,
classical test theory framework, 190
coefficient alpha
closeness to scale reliability,
discrepancy from scale reliability, 200
longevity, 196
population definition,
evaluation of,
interpretation and utility,
overview, ,
relationship with validity, 189
scale reliability coefficient
convergence of coefficient alpha and,
point and interval estimation, , 210
standardized solutions, limitations,
replication, 283
as basic tenet of the scientific method, 285
as “dangerous task” in science,
Central Limit Theorem and, 289
close replications, 287
conceptual replications,
defining,
difficulty of repeating outcomes, 289
exact replication, impossibility of,
execution of the process,
expansion of sampled populations and, 294
File Drawer Problem, 290
interpretation challenges, 284
limited influence, 290
methodological improvement, 294
overview and resources,
parameter estimation approaches, 295
project planning, 296
questionable research practices (QRPs) and, 291
recommendations,
replication crisis
causes,
researcher choices and, 291
role in falsifiability, 285
selection criteria,
research design
correlational studies examining relationships,
descriptive studies,
experimental research,
exploratory research,
RiddleMeThis, 54
Rouzies, A., 627
RTurk, 28
Russia, Internet Research Agency (IRA), 58
sampling
concept of, 3
context-specific sampling,
convenience samples, 8
different forms of,
history of,
in animal testing, 5
online samples, 8
organizational research,
probability sampling, 13
snowball sampling, 51
SARS-CoV-2 rapid at-home self-tests, 466
satisficing
acquiescence response bias and, 359
examples of, 331
influencing factors, 354
meaning of, 331
NSROs and, 361
primacy effects and, 341
respondent fatigue and, 363
response style and, 336
strong, 353
weak, 353
Schachter, Stanley, 24
Schwarz, N., 339
Seidman, I., 605,
self-report measures
American National Election Studies example, 329
context effects,
frequency scales, use of,
question order effects,
limitations, 497
objective measures, 329
overview,
recommendations for improvement,
sensitive measures, 330
subjective measures, 330
survey response process
comprehension,
cultural considerations, 336
judgment and estimation,
mapping,
response order effects,
retrieval,
social desirability bias, 335
verifiability,
self-selection bias, avoiding, 13
Sim, J., 655
Skowronski, John, 127
small q approach
comparison with Big Q research, 549
demographic data,
“not listed here” responses, 564
snowball sampling, 51
social media research
concept of social media,
confidentiality and consent, 64
data analysis
Language Inquiry Word Count (LIWC),
sentiment analysis,
tracking the psychological effects of COVID-19 pandemic, 60
viral spread of content,
data collection
anonymising of data, 64
digital footprints,
Google Trends, 56
methods and tools,
overview, 50
pre-existing social media data sets, 57
quality control,
scraping, 55
simulations, 54
social media companies offering academic APIs, 56
surveys,
ethical concerns
manipulation of users’ Facebook feeds,
outdated guidelines and, 65
political microtargeting,
primary pitfalls,
insights into human behavior, 48
machine learning techniques,
overview,
participant recruitment,
snowball sampling, 51
privacy concerns,
shared features of social media, 49
Society for the Improvement of Psychological Science, 149
sociological sampling, 6
Starbird, Kate, 57
statistical power
definition and related concepts,
examples,
influencing factors
alpha levels, 240–
effect size,
research design and test type, 240
sample size, 237
sensitivity analyses, 239
limitations, 254
post hoc power,
power analyses
using AIPE,
using programs (sample size),
using programs (sensitivity),
using R,
using tables, 242
pregnancy tests example, 234
recommendations,
Stephens-Davidowitz, Seth, 56
Stroop test, , 485
student samples
characteristics which raise concerns,
comparisons with other sample types, 11
correlational studies examining relationships,
descriptive studies,
different forms of sampling,
dimensions where students can vary from the public, 9
evaluating use of,
experimental research,
exploratory research,
external validity of experiments and, 13
in human behavior research, 5
overview, ,
percentage of marketing studies using, 11
percentage of US social psychology studies using, 11
potential effects on research findings, 7
recommendations for interpretation,
representativeness,
role of theory,
statistical analysis, 14
validity and generalizability concerns, 6
StudyResponse, 129
validity of measures
challenges of measure validation,
context effects,
desirable properties of valid measures,
error minimization techniques
calibration,
collection of multiple measurements, 223
control of potentially contaminating variables, 223
gathering validity evidence,
training, 223
example of invalid methods, 212
overview, , 214
potential sources of measurement tool invalidity,
properties to consider,
psychometrics data, validation with physiological measures, 465
reasons for emphasis on good management practice, 228
recommendations,
validity, scale length and, 357
Verma, Inder, 63
