5.1 Inquiry and Literacy in Chemistry

As a natural science, chemistry deals with the composition, structure and properties of matter and the changes substances undergo during a reaction with others. Within this problem-solving discipline, knowledge typically evolves from evidence-based investigations like experiments. Thus, common activities in the field of chemistry are experimenting; questioning; hypothesising; reasoning; calculating; gathering, organising and evaluating data; noticing regularity; and relating findings to various representations and generalising them.

Chemical inquiry typically starts with a research question, which can be open (e.g. What happens if substance A and B react together?) or closed (e.g. Is substance C flammable?). As the underlying reasoning process can either be inductive or deductive, students need to be able to generalise their findings on the one hand, but also be able to apply a general law or principle to explain specific results on the other hand. Generally speaking, they must become scientifically literate. This is important not only for those who want to become future scientists or engineers but also for all students, because chemical literacy helps to solve real-world problems. According to Thummathong and Thathong (Reference Thummathong and Thathong2018), ‘chemical literacy refers to a person’s ability to comprehend and apply the knowledge of chemistry in everyday life in terms of understanding three major aspects of knowledge, awareness and the application of chemistry in daily life appropriately and effectively’ (p. 480). Besides chemical content knowledge and overarching higher-order thinking skills, moral awareness, a sense of responsibility and attitude towards chemistry also play a crucial role.

To accomplish all the aspects of chemical literacy mentioned above, key chemistry concepts like the law of conversion, chemical bonding and reactions, structure–property and substance–particle concepts, states of matter or the conversion of energy must be internalised and applied freely. Secondly, students need to be taught how to perform experiments, interpret data, evaluate the quality of their data, locate possible sources of error, compare their data to other research and critically reflect on products, advertisements and their own behaviour based on their scientific knowledge. Thirdly, learners need to be able to decode information in and encode information from discontinuous text types, such as lab reports or protocols. Those complex macro-genres are built up from several microgenres, like descriptions, explanations, definitions or evaluations, as well as tables, diagrams, models and graphical data. Besides those genres, students need to know about different degrees of causation, perspectives and technical terms and be able to differentiate between everyday meanings of words and their scientific meaning. In order to promote chemical literacy during class, linguistic and cognitive patterns can be used to foster the desired text types (i.e. a scientific explanation).

The subject of chemistry is often described as full of difficult and abstract concepts that are too far away from learners’ everyday life. However, researchers claim that this is not due to the challenging content but rather rooted in a poor command of scientific language (Baumert et al., Reference Baumert, Klieme and Neubrand2001) resulting in misunderstandings and learning deficits (Nashan & Parchmann, Reference Nashan and Parchmann2008; Parchmann & Venke, Reference Parchmann and Venke2008; Vollmer, Reference Vollmer1980). But what exactly is it that makes scientific language so hard to understand?

Firstly, the subject-specific language of chemistry has some unique syntactic and morphologic features, like discontinuous texts, nominalisations, passive constructions or the symbolic language of chemical equations. Even though some terms are borrowed from everyday speech, they might have a broader, narrower or totally different meaning compared to the original.

Secondly, subject-specific language is also not learnt automatically (Byrnes, Reference Byrnes2013) but can only be acquired through active engagement within the particular subject. This is why Gillis (Reference Gillis2014) describes the subject teacher as a ‘teacher of discipline appropriate literacy practices’ (p. 621). To support students becoming literate, various scaffolds during the phases of planning, formulating and revising texts are necessary. Also, underlying cognitive processes have to be made explicit by the use of meta-language (Lemke, Reference Lemke1993; Polias, Reference Polias2016; Rose & Martin, Reference Rose and Martin2012), breaking down complex cognitive processes into manageable steps. Once students move from the novice to an expert stage, these processes become automatised and scaffolds can be reduced.

Thirdly, chemistry’s subject-specific language involves different kinds of representational forms that vary in degrees of abstraction. Being unaware of and unable to distinguish these levels inhibits the understanding and learning of chemical concepts. Thus, to participate in scientific discourse, all those representation levels must be mastered and used adequately in the particular situation. More practically speaking, if students want to thoroughly explain their findings made on the macroscopic level (substances), they must apply models and concepts based on the microscopic (particles) or sub-microscopic level (electrons) as backup. Besides this kind of deductive reasoning, hypotheses can also be formulated postulating possible characteristics of a substance based on its sub-microscopic structure (inductive reasoning). Unfortunately, if learners are not able to clearly distinguish those levels, this may lead to misconceptions and learning difficulties (see Figure 5.1).

Figure 5.1 Observations made on the macroscopic substance level explained on the sub-microscopic electron level

5.2 Progress in Meaning-Making

Progress in meaning-making in chemistry entails an increase in competence in the activity domains of doing, organising, explaining and arguing chemistry, which can be observed in the students’ presentation of chemical information and the quality of their production of chemical text types. If one compares a novice learner to an expert scientist, it becomes clear that progress equals a mastery of more genres, text types and cognitive discourse functions (CDFs). Thus, metaphorically speaking, it equals a higher quantity of meaning-making tools in the toolbox of scientific literacy. Just as tools can be more or less precise, language also increases in quality as learners progress. Content is then presented in a more elaborate and sophisticated way. For example, explanations do not only contain more scientific terms, but observations made on the macroscopic substance level are explained with principles on the microscopic particle or sub-microscopic electron level (Figure 5.2).

Figure 5.2 The combustion of wood explained on three different representational levels

(Connolly, Reference Connolly2019)

Furthermore, expert explanations show complex or multi-causal structures and contain increasingly precise causal connections (Figure 5.3). Implicit connections between several concepts are explicitly verbalised, resulting in greater depth (connection of multiple representational levels) and breadth (generalisations) in the content. Lastly, being able to participate in scientific discourse includes the ability to reflect and negotiate meaning, as well as to define and defend one’s own position in the field.

Figure 5.3 Causal connections varying in degree of precision

To illustrate this progress in meaning-making, three explanations will be presented written by sixth-, eighth- and tenth-grade students using the provided scaffolding (see Figures 5.4 and 5.5). Even though beginners in science do not yet know about particles and electrons, they can still logically reason their findings on the substance level using the scheme laid out in Figure 5.3.

Figure 5.4 Visual scaffolding structuring causal explanations

Figure 5.5 Example explanation of a sixth-grade student

(Connolly, Reference Connolly2019)

Eighth-grade students are introduced to the particle model, which means that they can leave the surface level of chemical matter and ‘zoom in’ to the next representational level. Observations are connected to principles, laws and theories, and causal connections like verbs expressing causality become more elaborate. Also, students are able to use the principle-reasoning-observation (PRO)-model by Putra and Tang (Reference Putra and Tang2016), as the example in Figure 5.6 shows.

Figure 5.6 Example explanation of an eighth-grade student following the PRO-model

(Connolly, Reference Connolly2019)

The last example, of a tenth-grade student (Figure 5.7), shows how multiple kinds of explanations can be combined to explain the functionality of the Daniell cell on the sub-microscopic level with the respective scientific terms.

Figure 5.7 Example explanation of a tenth-grade student

(Connolly, Reference Connolly2019)

The way in which activity domains and activities in chemistry can be related to CDFs and student products that are typical in chemistry is shown in Table 5.1.

5.3 Deeper Learning in Chemistry

Deeper understanding in chemistry includes the ability to reason experimental findings based on principles, laws and theories, as well as to transfer this gained knowledge to other circumstances, forming overarching concepts. Those cognitive processes of understanding, explaining and transferring content are initiated and solidified by scientific language.

Even though deeper understanding is the desired goal of the learning process, there are numerous hurdles along the way. Concerning content, rapidly changing atom models and a lack of explicit connections between the macro- and microlevel can have negative effects on the learning outcome. Regarding language, if too many terms are introduced simultaneously without properly ascribing meaning to them and practising them, scientific language no longer functions as a meaning-making tool but becomes an obstacle in the learning process. Especially, symbolic language can cause feelings of incompetence and fear if not understood properly. Lacking such emotional engagement can also arise if students do not see a personal relevance in the subject and think they have little or no prior knowledge. This, again, makes it harder to integrate new knowledge into existing mental models, preventing deeper understanding based on more complex concepts.

To overcome the above-mentioned hurdles, the following deeper learning strategies can be applied.

Textual understanding can be deepened and the quality of student texts improved if meta-language and working examples are combined within the following three steps. First, authentic and typical text types in the field of chemistry need to be introduced. Then, the significance and purpose of those text types have to be discussed so that students understand when and why certain text types are used. Finally, strategies need to be acquired on how to decode primary sources and encode newly gained information in one’s own text.

Especially for the subject of chemistry, increasing content relevance is of importance as many students claim that they do not know anything about chemistry and will never make use of the learned concepts again as they are too far away from everyday life. Because this is not the case, chemical content needs to be made more accessible to students by creating parallels and presenting examples from everyday life. During lesson introductions, authentic texts and material can be used to formulate hypotheses for real-life problems (e.g. how can we build/produce …). Also, teachers should choose experiments that lead to clear observations and are interesting and contemporary (e.g. choosing the recent explosion in Beirut instead of the Zeppelin disaster of 100 years ago).

Critical cultural consciousness is developed when learners are confronted with recent topics and asked to take a stance. Those could, for example, be climate change, waste recycling, the use of hazardous and cancer-causing substances or microplastics. As educated chemists on the one hand and responsible consumers on the other, they should be able to take both advantages and disadvantages into consideration and truly evaluate the benefit of a product critically and multi-dimensionally.

Agency and accountability are increased if students become responsible for their work and results. As soon as they are asked to plan an experiment and only receive the chemicals and material they included in their experiment supply list, the amount of accountability becomes visible if some essential items are missing and can only be received by trading points from their grade. Another possible scenario could be that students incorrectly request/use different chemicals or chemicals differing in their concentration during analysis, forcing them to produce their own results.

Similar to other subjects, learning pathways can be differentiated with help cards and tasks differing in their complexity or format.

The individualisation of learning pathways can be achieved as soon as students chose the topic they want to work on and the kind of sources they want to use. Another way to trigger individual problem-solving approaches is to only give students a basket of materials without further instructions other than tasking them with building a battery, for example. Results can be presented using different modes of representation, like tables, texts or movies, to provide further individualisation.

Deeper understanding also needs deep practice, contrary to tasks which show little variation. In this respect, asking for the underlying thought process that led to a result can be beneficial in the learning process. Additionally, concept cartoons trigger students to argue why a statement is right or wrong, and they have to use appropriate concepts and scientific terms for their explanation. Translating information from one text format into another also asks students to transfer their knowledge and demonstrate their understanding.

Scaffolds are temporary forms of support that gradually need to be reduced throughout the learning process. Concerning scientific language, detailed writing frames can, for example, turn into sporadic hints, and joint construction merges into group and individual construction. This means that the responsibility of the writing process is transferred from the teacher or the group to the individual student.

5.4 A Model Deeper Learning Episode in Chemistry: ‘(How) Did Ötzi Produce Copper?’ (Year 8)

The main objective of this deeper learning episode (DLE) in chemistry is an understanding of redox reactions of metals. Eighth-grade students perform experiments concerning reactivity series and reducing agents and examine different production processes of metals. Redox reactions are not only relevant within the subject but can also be found in students’ everyday life when a log burns or a bike corrodes. As this DLE consists of different subtopics, numerous learning products ranging from lab reports to explanatory videos, presentations and posters can be found. Students have various options for presenting their findings, which increases their creativity, motivation and engagement. Those affective components are indispensable factors for deeper learning processes.

Concerning subject-specific literacies, students get introduced to the recurring patterns of causal explanations and practise them within different situations. This CDF has been chosen since ‘[t]he ability to reason from evidence, along with understanding the central role evidence plays in science, is a core element in the development of scientifically literate students’ (Brown et al., Reference Brown, Furtak, Timms, Nagashima and Wilson2010, p. 126). Unfortunately, researchers report that students lack strategies to reason based on principles (McNeill et al., Reference McNeill, Lizotte, Krajcik and Marx2006; Putra & Tang, Reference Putra and Tang2016). To tackle those deficits, students must receive explicit scaffolding in the form of working examples, definitions, cause-and-effect diagrams and the like.

Before the individual steps of the DLE are explained in detail, an overview will be given of how to align crucial aspects of the pluriliteracies approach to deeper learning following five guiding questions (see Table 5.2).

5.5 Alignment of Deeper Learning Episode

To achieve high task fidelity, a DLE has been designed creating a personal yet productive learning experience within an authentic context. Based on a practical experiment, students have to find out whether Ötzi was able to produce elemental copper 3,000 years ago and present their findings in a creative yet subject-appropriate way. To create a DLE that is tailored to the learners’ needs and competences, the following four aspects had to be aligned.

Learner Strengths, Needs and Interests: especially for the subject of chemistry, it is important to keep learners’ strengths, needs and interests in mind. Not all students are intrinsically motivated and interested in the matter but rather regard themselves as incompetent and think they do not have any productive prior knowledge at hand. However, if engaging and challenging learning environments are created, within which learners are taken seriously and treated as experts, those obstacles can be overcome. The chosen task shows a real information gap, asking students to build new knowledge based on existing concepts. Even though learners are responsible for the outcome, they can still cope with the task as they have a clearly formulated learning goal and can visualise the learning pathway.

Disciplinary Literacy and its Core Constructs.

• Epistemology and inquiry practices. Students need to extract information from a text and formulate a research question. Based on their hypotheses, they plan and carry out experiments in small groups. Afterwards, findings are analysed to answer the research question. The newly gained information is then encoded in various text types and presented in class.

• Overarching principles, key concepts and themes. The theme of reduction reactions has been put into a realistic context as a curious girl wants to know whether the story she just heard in a museum is true or false. Authentic, or at least true-to-life, contexts allow students to identify with the subject matter, activate their prior knowledge and become emotionally engaged. Within this DLE, key chemistry concepts of energy, structure–property and substance–particle relationships, as well as the reactivity series of metals, need to be applied to explain how Ötzi was able to produce elemental copper out of its ore.

• Forms of representation. Creative final learner products, such as letters, explanatory videos and oral presentations, have been chosen since students tend to be more interested in and engaged by these forms of learner products than chemical equations and lab reports. Then, as students encode the gained information into various text types (i.e. diagrams, charts of continuous texts, etc.) and translate content from one text type into another, their ability to transfer knowledge is fostered and their understanding deepened. When students are asked to reply to Anna’s letter, they can easily visualise the audience and thus decide which style and register to use for this communicative purpose. Whereas it is appropriate to use colloquial language within the letter to Anna, the supplementary explanatory video for the museum visitors requires a register change because such videos must contain subject-specific terms and academic language.

• Discourse structures. Within this DLE, typical discourse structures of the subject can be found. These are, among others: formulating research questions, hypotheses and chemical equations; describing, analysing and explaining observations; defining terms; and generalising knowledge to form overarching concepts. As mentioned earlier, a special focus is thereby placed on written causal explanations.

Activity Domains: learners are doing chemistry when they plan and perform an experiment during which they take notes about the physical property and appearance of chemicals used. They are organising chemistry when they describe the observations made in the experiment in a precise and chronologically correct manner. Next, students are explaining chemistry when they explain all observations based on the reactivity series of metals, define the terms reducing agent and reduction, and formulate a chemical equation. Within the final step of the deeper learning process, also called arguing chemistry, students answer the research question based on their experimental findings. A critical reflection of different reducing agents and procedures is also part of the last phase.

Growth Mindset, Deep Practice and Deep Understanding: if students perform an experiment they have planned themselves, the learning experience is more personal than if students simply follow an experimental procedure like a cooking recipe. Also, with their own experimental procedure, students know better what to do and what to observe during the experiment. Otherwise, it is possible that they forget to observe relevant aspects of the reaction, preventing them from formulating a thorough explanation afterwards. Since the experiment is performed and analysed in small groups, learning takes place in social interaction and within a safe environment. Students are free to decide on the format of their presentation, which gives them another chance to increase their self-regulative competence and self-efficacy throughout the learning process. Since the final presentation takes place in front of the class, students demonstrate their revised understanding at its best. During those presentations, learner products are evaluated and function as a common ground for feedback, discussion and reflection.

5.6 Move from Surface Learning to Consolidation to Transfer Stage

In this DLE, the transition from surface learning to the consolidation and transfer stage is achieved by causal explanations. With its recurring patterns, this CDF guides students to combine multiple levels of representation and to reason observations based on general principles. To start with, surface learning is achieved as soon as students can describe their observations on a phenomenological level and answer the first part of the research question: ‘Yes, Ötzi was able to produce elemental copper out of its ore since the black powder was transformed into shiny reddish-brown grains.’ During the consolidation stage, students need to explain the reaction on the particle level using key concepts and subject-specific terms. ‘Copper oxide and carbon react in an exothermic reaction forming copper and carbon dioxide. The reason for that is that carbon particles have a higher tendency to react with oxygen than copper particles. Consequently, copper oxide donates oxygen during reduction while carbon functions as a reducing agent, simultaneously accepting oxygen during oxidation. In general, a more reactive metal can displace a less reactive metal from its compounds.’ Finally, this knowledge needs to be abstracted and generalised to allow transfer. ‘Ötzi could have used any other substance that is more reactive than copper as a reducing agent. For example, within a displacement reaction, aluminium can be used to displace iron out of its ore since aluminium is higher on the reactivity series than iron.’ In addition to being able to transfer knowledge from one situation to another, another activity during the transfer stage can also be that students argue why a statement is true or false and decide with which principle their answer could be backed up. All this could be done using concept cartoons (Figure 5.8).

Figure 5.8 Concept cartoon to trigger deeper practice during the transfer stage of the deeper learning episode

5.7 Conclusion and Outlook

Explanations are a fundamental element of the subject of chemistry as they allow for knowledge construction and knowledge communication. However, to utilise their full meaning-making potential, the underlying structure needs to be made explicit and practised deeply. Among others, this can be done by means of the presented conceptual and verbal scaffolding within the pluriliteracies teaching for deeper learning approach. Even though a special focus has been placed on causal explanations in this DLE, further research on other relevant CDFs in the field of chemistry is needed to develop more DLEs that can help students to improve their subject-specific language skills.

5.8 Learning Materials

Lesson Plan

Embedded in the DLE of redox reactions, the depicted sub-episode of copper oxide reduction can be structured with the lesson plan in Table 5.3, with assessment of the resulting explanations shown in Table 5.4.

Table 5.3 Lesson plan of the deeper learning episode ‘Producing copper out of its ore’

Lesson	Tasks	Timeframe
1	Introduction: – Read Anna’s letter and formulate a research question Doing Phase: – Plan and perform experiment Organising Phase: – Describe observations First Explaining Phase: – Fill out PRO-model writing frame – Answer research question in class	90 minutes
2	Second Explaining Phase: – Reply to Anna’s letter with scientific explanation – Provide feedback based on checklist – Improve explanation – Present explanatory letters in class	90 minutes
3	Arguing Phase: – Apply principles of reduction and reducing agent to other reactions – Create explanatory videos, presentations and leaflets for imaginary museum visitors	90 minutes
4	Presentation and evaluation: – Present explanatory videos in class – Evaluation of videos	90 minutes

Table 5.4 Assessment of explanations in chemistry

Explanation in Chemistry
	Perfect!	OK, but …	Not quite right yet…
Stating a Claim	You state an accurate and complete claim.	You state an accurate but incomplete claim.	You don’t state a claim, or your claim is inaccurate.
Giving Evidence	You give appropriate and sufficient evidence for your claim.	You give appropriate but insufficient evidence for your claim.	You give no or incorrect evidence to your claim, or your evidence does not support your claim.
Reasoning Scientifically	Your reasoning links evidence to your claim and includes appropriate and sufficient scientific principles.	Your reasoning links evidence to your claim but does not include appropriate and/or sufficient scientific principles.	Your reasoning does not link evidence to your claim.
Using Causal Conjunctions like ‘because’ or ‘therefore’	You use appropriate causal conjunctions.	You use inappropriate or not enough causal conjunctions.	You don’t use any causal conjunctions.
Using Scientific Terms	You use appropriate scientific terms.	You use inappropriate or not enough scientific terms.	You don’t use any scientific terms.

Worksheet 1.1Redox Reactions – Ötzi the Iceman

Worksheet 1.2How to Write a Good Explanation

6.1 Synergies between Scientific Literacy and Deeper Learning

In our highly scientific and technology-dominated world, great importance is placed on learners’ ability to navigate such an environment. Therefore, physics education is of the utmost relevance as it is a dedicated tool in the formation of scientific and technological competences. The goal of our educational efforts should be to provide learners not only with topical facts, knowledge and background but also with particular skills in approaching, handling, and specifically communicating ‘science’ in such a way as to successfully participate in any kind of purposeful exchange in the field’s discourse. ‘Scientific literacy’ describes exactly this intersection between using scientific knowledge and skills to language addressee- and context-appropriate discourse in the field. A further characteristic of scientific literacy is the activity-related and application-oriented knowledge of essential underlying scientific cognition processes, such as ideation, formulation of hypotheses, planning of experiments, interpretation of results and deviations, and, finally, the deduction of general concepts and laws (Fischer, Reference Fischer1998). In physics education, ‘scientific literacy’ essentially comprises the three domains of

1. 1. Explaining scientific phenomena

2. 2. Developing, executing, and evaluating scientific research

3. 3. Interpreting scientific evidence (Gebhard, Höttecke & Rehm, Reference Gebhard, Höttecke and Rehm2017; Prenzel et al., Reference Prenzel, Sälzer, Klieme and Köller2013).

Thus, the scientific use of knowledge can be defined as identifying objects for investigation, describing observation and phenomena and drawing conclusions based on evidence. In addition, scientific literacy involves understanding the relevance and importance of science and technology for our future existence and the future of our environment. Physicists must also be prepared to confront and reflect on topics and ideas related to other fields of science (Prenzel et al., Reference Prenzel, Sälzer, Klieme and Köller2013).

The appropriate and correct use of language and communication skills facilitates the acquisition and teaching of relevant, basic science skills (Gebhard, Höttecke & Rehm, Reference Gebhard, Höttecke and Rehm2017). Included here are the fundamental skills of analytical reasoning, complex problem solving and teamwork. Scientific literacy is, therefore, the competent and appropriate usage of instructional, educational, and technical language as well as the ability to transition from such academic registers to common everyday speech. To truly appreciate scientific observations, methodologies and theories, physicists must have a command of multi-modal discourse, for example, writing lab reports, solving equations and using digital tools.

The general goal of a literacy-based approach is the initiation of a deeper learning process, which entails the teaching of subject culture, methods, and content (Prenzel et al., Reference Prenzel, Sälzer, Klieme and Köller2013).

6.2 Deeper Learning in Physics Lessons

Language is the basic building block of classroom communication and paves the way to make knowledge transferable, understandable and usable. As pointed out above, its well-reflected application is thus of the utmost importance even in teaching physics and must adequately accompany the formation of essential subject-specific knowledge. According to the 2006 and 2012 PISA studies, the three aspects of scientific literacy (i.e. (1) explaining scientific phenomena; (2) developing, executing and evaluating scientific research; and (3) interpreting scientific evidence) are also identified by the terms (1) knowing, (2) doing, and (3) assessing. These aspects are further divided into a broad range of competences, such as linguistic and epistemological competence; learning, communicative, social, and procedural competence; and surely neither last nor least, ethical–moral and aesthetic competence (Prenzel et al., 2013).

In deeper learning, the concept of literacy refers not only to a deep understanding of subject-specific knowledge but also a command of discipline discourse (Meyer & Imhof, Reference Meyer and Imhof2017). That is, deeper learning is based on the teaching–learning model of competence-oriented and cognitively activating education (Leisen, Reference Leisen and Maier2014) and is complemented by aspects of language formation. Here, language is an essential element in processes of so-called higher-order cognition, such as creativity, systematic decision-making, evaluative thinking, and brainstorming (Helmke et. al, Reference Helmke, Helmke, Lenske, Pham, Praetorius, Schrader, Ade-Thurow and Huber2011; Meyer & Imhof, Reference Meyer and Imhof2017). In order to successfully navigate such cognitive processes, learners must gradually acquire ever-more sophisticated language within their discipline of study, and this language must be continuously refined.

However, languaging appropriately is one of the most fundamental challenges in educational contexts, especially in the natural sciences. One glance in a physics textbook quickly reveals the sheer quantity of specialised terms learners are confronted with: in a science textbook at secondary level, about 1,500–2,500 technical terms or phrases are introduced, which are often even characterised by a subject-specific syntax. On average, up to ten new technical terms appear in one lesson (Merzyn, Reference Merzyn1998). Success in the classroom can only be achieved when such terms and syntax are mastered.

Cognitive Discourse Function

Vollmer and Thürmann describe basic cognitive and linguistic actions using the term cognitive discourse functions (CDFs), which are essentially linguistic patterns that show up time and time again during specific cognitive processes, for example, explaining, describing, or evaluating (Vollmer & Thürmann, Reference Vollmer, Thürmann and Ahrenholz2010, p. 116). In terms of deeper learning, CDFs refer to both thematic and interdisciplinary language acts. Many CDFs can be used across disciplines, which helps learners make meaning regardless of school subjects. However, there are also subject-specific CDFs that focus on science education in particular. They are closely related to the linguistic term ‘operator.’ Though they can sometimes be shared with other disciplines, common operators in physics are usually very specific (Vollmer, Reference Vollmer2011, pp. 1f). Fortunately, though, a number of science-oriented CDFs exist that can aid learners in effectively communicating in the natural science field (Table 6.1).

Table 6.1 Physics-specific discourse functions

Discourse Function	Description	Activity Domains
Deduce	Draw appropriate conclusions based on findings	Explaining
Estimate	Indicate orders of magnitude through reasoned considerations	Arguing
Hypothesise	Formulate an educated guess	Arguing
Prove	Prove or disprove an assertion/statement with the help of factual arguments by logical deduction	Arguing
Document	Provide all necessary explanations, derivations, and sketches for a subject/procedure	Doing
Plan	Find an experimental setup for a given problem and create experimental instructions	Doing
Report	Report the course of events, observations, and results as well as evaluation (results protocol, progress report) in a discipline-appropriate manner	Explaining
Investigate	Search for objects; work out characteristics and connections	Doing
Derive	Solve equations using mathematical operations to determine physical quantity; comment on essential steps of the solution	Organising/Explaining
Check	Measure facts or statements against facts or internal logic and, if necessary, uncover contradictions	Arguing
Summarise	Reproduce essential information in a concentrated form	Organising/Explaining

In order to simplify the CDFs even more, we have created ‘illustrated discourse functions’ specifically for our example. That means we have established a transparent system of pictograms that visually underline the work assignments within the learning unit discussed in this chapter. The symbols chosen provide learners with the specific information about the task’s primary focus and the way it should be addressed and solved. From a collection of items, we have limited ourselves to a set of six icons: observing as a layperson, observing through a physics lens, performing, noting, verbalising and purposeful verbalising (see Figure 6.1). The symbols serve as anchor points and help learners quickly find their way around the teaching materials.

Figure 6.1 Illustrated discourse functions

6.3 Deeper Learning Strategies in Physics

The successful achievement of deeper learning in physics teaching implies the ability to act and express oneself confidently and in depth within a specific context. Learners must be able to do physics (i.e. observe and conduct experiments), organise physics (e.g. describe physical phenomena), explain physics (i.e. provide an explanation for observations), and argue physics (e.g. evaluate the appropriateness of certain methods). Acquisition of such skills is guided by deeper learning strategies.

• The deepening of the understanding of text and experimentation is necessary to initiate research actions. In this process, the learners already draw on prior knowledge and established patterns in order to understand and process new knowledge and content.

• Commitment and accountability can be increased by assigning learners partial responsibility for the layout and accuracy in planning, conducting and evaluating an experiment and in independently contributing interpretations, evidence and references.

• To highlight the content relevance for a given topic, it is essential to achieve an adequate mindset for the specific research task. Authentic contexts and relevance to everyday life can facilitate the learners’ entry into and excitement for the learning unit. Therefore, everyday prominence for the learners’ personal experiences plays a central role in the acceptance and transfer of knowledge.

• Another substantial point is the development of a critical cultural consciousness. This facet, which at first glance might seem somewhat irrelevant or inappropriate for physics education, is of much importance. A central aspect of work in the sciences includes the ability to participate in current discipline discourse. Examples include topics such as climate change, energy and mobility.

• For the sake of supporting the learners in the best possible way, we must also mention the differentiation and individualisation of the learning pathways. The focus here is on both the work materials and the learning environment as well as the self-regulation and feedback by the teacher.

• To enforce deeper learning, a proper appreciation of the application of what is being learnt and what has been learnt is required. It is fundamental that learners acquire and fully establish a solid basis for the treatment of tasks as well as for a competent application of experimental instructions. This is a necessary condition for further action and is known as deep (or even deeper) practice.

Individualised learning paths can be developed using appropriate and targeted support given by verbal as well as written assistance. Learners at varying stages in the learning process can be aided by well-developed language and method supports (i.e. scaffolding). Thus, individualisation processes can be assisted with the help of sophisticated and evidence-based scaffolding approaches.

6.4 A Model Deeper Learning Episode in Physics

6.5 Alignment of the Deeper Learning Episode

6.6 How Do Learners Move from Surface Learning through Consolidation to the Transfer Stage?

Description of the Learning Unit in Chronological Order

Activation of the Learners

To activate the learners’ concepts of dispersion and optics in physics, the optimal position of the sun, rainfall and observer is discussed. This starts discourse on the topic of the appearance and visibility of the rainbow. Here, learners are asked to recall their prior real-life experiences (e.g. When did I last see a rainbow? What were the conditions then?) while also contributing their previous knowledge on the topic (e.g. Which conditions must possibly be met to see a splitting of colours in the pattern?).

Starting-Point

The deeper learning episode starts with some preparations in the first lesson. The learners form groups (e.g. groups of three) and receive the first and second worksheet. The class then moves to the open school grounds to explore an artificial rainbow, which serves as the first experiment. This will allow the learners to directly observe the natural phenomenon and to formulate first hypotheses as starting-points for joint discussions and further investigations. They should independently figure out that the raindrops somehow act as the source of the colour effects. Propelled downward by gravity, the individual raindrops separate the different colours of which white sunlight is composed and each individual drop makes visible to the observer one specific colour. The succession of millions of raindrops, each ‘revealing’ another colour, makes it possible to observe all the colours of the rainbow, which serves as an important first insight (see 1st Experiment on Worksheets 1–4 and Table 6.2).

Promote/Acquire Basic Understanding and Acquisition of Foundational Skills

The artificial rainbow is also a good starting-point to achieve a basic knowledge. Specifically, learners can collect data on the appearance of the rainbow, the underlying conditions for the formation thereof, the necessary conditions for its visual observation, the weather conditions, the shape and opening angle of the rainbow, the occurrence of individual colours, and the relationship between the positions of the light source, rain drops, and observer (i.e. the positional relationship). Additionally, they can consider other phenomena, like double rainbows, dark space and more, which can then be discussed. Worksheets 3–5 guide learners in developing this basic knowledge (2nd Lesson, see Lesson Plan Table 6.3).

Table 6.3 Lesson Plan

Lessons	Tasks for Learners (S) and Teachers (T)	Activity Domains	Time
1st	Organisation (T) Experiment 1 (S & T) Worksheets 1 & 2 (S)	Organising, Doing	45 minutes
2nd	Outlook: Your Wikipedia Contribution (T) Worksheets 3, 4 & 5 (S)	Doing, Explaining	45 minutes
Teacher Feedback (T)
3rd	Experiment 2 (S & T)	Doing, Explaining	45 minutes
4th	Experiment 3 (S & T)	Doing, Explaining	45 minutes
Homework: Learning Task 1 (Tasks 8.1, 8.2, 8.3)
5th	Learning Task 1 (Worksheet 8) (S) Experiment 4 (T)	Doing, Explaining	45 minutes
6th	Learning Task 2 (S) Creating a Wikipedia article (S)
7th	Creating a Wikipedia article (S) (also as homework)	Explaining, Arguing	45 minutes
8th	Presentation and reflection (S & T)	Arguing	45 minutes
9th	More about rainbows	Doing, Explaining	45 minutes
Teacher Feedback (T)

Studies have shown that these basics are not directly evident for schoolchildren or learners of higher grades:

Thus, many do not realise that the observer must have the sun at his back. Very many learners are of the opinion before the lesson that one must look through the rain at the sun [5]. Others do not arrange the sun, the rain wall and the observer in one line, but see the rain wall like a mirror on which the sun shines obliquely (angle of incidence = angle of reflection). The correct arrangement must therefore be discussed in class and preferably demonstrated.

(Wilhelm, Horz & Schlichting, Reference Wilhelm, Horz and Schlichting2014, p. 6)

Supporting the Learners

As already described in Part I of this volume, differentiation of the learners’ learning processes. In order to customise the learning material in an optimal way, special scaffolding materials called ‘scaffsheets’ have been developed. There are two types of scaffsheets (Figure 6.2), which are indicated in this learning episode by a specific colour and pictogram. Those providing language support are identified with a corresponding yellow pictogram (e.g. Scaffsheet 1). Scaffsheets primarily providing learners with subject information are identified with orange pictograms (e.g. Scaffsheet 5).

Figure 6.2 Initiate scaffolding

Scaffolding regarding the formulation of positional relationships and the necessary conditions for rainbow observation is provided by Scaffsheets 1–3, specifically addressing learners who do not yet have a firm comprehension of the corresponding linguistic basics (Table 6.2). Furthermore, information about the rainbow angles is scaffolded in a task to prevent problems with the comprehension of a corresponding text (see Worksheet 5). With respect to the final written learning product, learners also receive help in giving written explanations, provided by Scaffsheet 5, as well as in citing links correctly, organising their work, and addressing specific claims required in their explanations (see Scaffsheets 6–8).

Supplementary to this written scaffolding, learners are supported through personal feedback, feed-up, and feed-forward (Hattie, Reference Hattie2012). At the beginning of the learning unit, learners are presented with well-defined research questions as well as an in-depth look at the expected learning product (i.e. a Wikipedia article), which ensures clarity of purpose via feed-up. Later on, the student groups receive teacher-given feedback on their results from Worksheets 3–5 and then peer feedback on their Wikipedia article. Regarding feed-forward, learners are given the ability to monitor and assess their learning and thereby gain confidence to be able to complete a future task on their own.

These essential steps are supported by the following:

• lesson planning that is transparent to learners and allows them to successfully address the research questions

• well-structured information about the expected learning outcome, (here, e.g. the design of the Wikipedia article), leading to clarity in the evaluation criteria

• guidance on what is expected of written statements

• a pool of images, which allows learners to adequately design the article and their texts.

Learning Path: Experimental Setup and Construction – In the Rainbow Lab

After the introductory experiment and the acquisition of basic knowledge, the learners move on to the second experiment, which is preceded by a short thematic transition. Specifically, learners discuss ways to investigate specific colour observation in more detail. This discussion should initially lead to the suggestion to use a water-filled and illuminated round-bottom flask as a model of a water drop and lastly to the development of the following research questions: Does the round flask ‘show’ the colours of a primary rainbow when it is illuminated and lowered? Does it ‘show’ the colours of a secondary rainbow? Does this lighting take place in the respective rainbow angles that we have discussed in class? (Second Experiment on Worksheet 6).

A corresponding experimental setup is shown in Figure 6.3, with a clinometer (Figure 6.4, self-printed in a 3D printer) to measure the angle. The clinometer consists of a holder for a smartphone and a scope to aim the phone at the glass bulb. Instructions for 3D printing are included in Section 6.8 Learning Materials.

Figure 6.3 Experimental setup

Figure 6.4 Clinometer in action

At the beginning the clinometer is used to set a starting angle of about 55°. A student observes the round-bottom flask with one eye right next to the clinometer while another student slowly lowers the flask, changing the angle. First, at the lower edge of the flask, light changing its colour from red to violet should be observed, followed by another reflex at the lower edge with colour change from violet to red. These findings with respect to the first research question should confirm the raindrop model.

However, the angles of 51° and 42°, as obtained from the artificial or real rainbow, cannot be confirmed in the angle measurements. Here, values around 46° to 48° are found. These findings give the opportunity to criticise the model and to make assumptions about possible reasons for the observed deviations (e.g. the influence of the glass envelope). The independent discovery and development of an explanation corresponds to an important aspect of scientific literacy i.e. the process of gaining knowledge. An experiment that can be used to properly reproduce the rainbow angles is described in the appendix (see Section 6.8 Learning Materials).

One question remains: How do the raindrops create a curved arc? This research question can be tested again with a water-filled round-bottom flask – ideally outdoors since the direction of the light source must be kept constant even under major changes in the flask positions. This experiment represents a student-centred extension to the second experiment in the rainbow lab with the clinometer (3rd Experiment on Worksheet 7).

The two rainbows can be simulated using flasks in the lab. Learners are asked to observe the colour glow that appears at the highest point (i.e. the pinnacle of an arc) when focusing their eyeline in the centre of the line that connects the sun, the observer and the flask. Moving away from that centre point, the colour glow is observed at an increasingly lower height. The colour always seems further away on the side of the flask rim – always oriented to the centre (i.e. to the observer) (Worksheet 7, task 7.4). If, finally, the glass bulbs are observed all around for colour impressions, it becomes clear that the spectral glow takes place around the direction of incidence. This shows that even raindrops near the edge of an arc can contribute to the observed colour of the whole arc.

Moreover, further questions are prompted by the second experiment: How is it that round flasks or water drops emit light in spectral colours? What happens, scientifically speaking, in the flask or in the drop? In Learning Task 1, learners outline and verbalise their ideas about appropriate processes (Worksheet 8). To test their hypotheses, an experiment is planned and carried out (4th Experiment on Worksheet 9). The processes which become evident in this experiment are secured as results. This fourth experiment can also be viewed via video, for example, on a website of the Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich:

• http://www2.didaktik.physik.uni-muenchen.de/expvid/Optik/hd/brechung_regenbogen.m4v

6.7 Conclusion and Outlook

This chapter presents a model deeper learning episode in physics on the rainbow. As shown in Table 6.4, each step on the learning journey moves learners along the pathway of deeper learning through deep understanding, deep practice and transfer activities. In this context, both the subject-specific content and language are essential elements for which aids (i.e. scaffsheets) have been provided. These scaffsheets, as well as other aids and a variety of detailed examples, can be found both above and in the appendix to the chapter (see Table 6.5). These were designed with the purpose of fostering learner growth within the classroom. The use of these engaging, supportive materials in combination with valuable feedback promotes learner involvement, participation and cognitive activation, which allow learners to demonstrate their understanding through the production of a discipline-appropriate text.

6.8 Learning Materials

Reproduction of Rainbow Angles with a Water Drop Experiment.

A drop of water hangs from a syringe (on the right in Figure 6.5) and is illuminated from the left. If the learners look along the two 41° sight lines and then move their heads back and forth, they discover colour reflexes in the spectral colours.

Figure 6.5 Water drop experiment

Instructions for the 3D Printing of the Clinometer

To determine the angle between the incident light and the light reflected by the raindrop (model) in the experiment (Figure 6.5), an angle-measuring instrument is required. In order not to have to make a special purchase for this, or to have to calculate via measuring, we developed a clinometer holder, through which any smartphone can be converted into a clinometer with a scope. A 3D printer is needed as well as a suitable app (pre-installed by default on iOS). As an alternative to the 3D-printed object, a smartphone can also be used as a scope with the help of a straw. In each case, however, it is important to ensure that the incident light in the model also hits the water drop model horizontally so that the angles can be determined correctly. The.stl file can be downloaded from https://www.larissa.physik.uni-mainz.de/rainbow/

Worksheet 6.1Rainbows

Worksheet 6.2Rainbows

Worksheet 6.3:Rainbows

Scaffsheet 1:Rainbows

Worksheet 6.4Rainbows

Scaffsheet 2:Rainbows

Scaffsheet 3:Rainbows

Worksheet 6.5.1Rainbow Angles

Worksheet 6.5.2Rainbow Angles

Worksheet 6.6In the Rainbow Laboratory

Worksheet 6.7In the Rainbow Laboratory

Worksheet 6.8.1In the Rainbow Laboratory

Worksheet 6.8.2In the Rainbow Laboratory

Scaffsheet 4:Proposed Solution for the Optical Construction

Worksheet 6.9In the Rainbow Laboratory

Worksheet 6.10:In the Rainbow Laboratory

Scaffsheet 5:How to Write a Good Explanation

A Good Causal Explanation Has:

Worksheet 6.11.1Your Wikipedia Article about the Primary Rainbow

Scaffsheet 6:Hyperlinks

Worksheet 6.11.2Drawings Say More Than a Thousand Words

Worksheet 6.12:Feedback for Your Classmates!

Worksheet 6.13:There is More about Rainbows!

You have now explored and explained the primary rainbow. But more phenomena are still missing, for example, the secondary rainbow and the dark band between the arcs. The following tasks will guide you to explain these phenomena as well.

The Secondary Bow

The following drawing shows you the path of light that enters a drop of water below the centre of the drop.

1. a) Describe the course of the light.

2. b) Explain the secondary rainbow with the help of this course.

Alexander’s Dark Zone

Between the main and the secondary rainbow is a zone darker than the arcs and the rest of the sky. This is Alexander’s Dark Zone, named after Alexander of Aphrodisias, a Greek philosopher.

Make a guess as to why this zone between the arches is so dark.

(Hint: Think beyond the visible spectrum!)

Add to Your Wikipedia Article!

The extra content must cover the secondary rainbow and, if you like, something additional.

7.1 Subject-Specific Literacy in Geography

Geography looks at Earth in a holistic way. The International Charter on Geographical Education defines geography as ‘the study of Earth and its natural, physical, and human environment’ (2016). Geographical knowledge is based on evidence-based investigations as well as theoretical, yet real-world-oriented, frameworks and concepts, and it is guided by a multitude of inquiry approaches. At the centre of geographical inquiry is always the following sequence of questions: What is where? And how, when and why did it come to be there? (Egli, Hasler, & Probst, Reference Egli, Hasler and Probst2016). However, these geographical inquiry practices require more than isolated competences related to discipline-relevant expertise and methodological skills. In geography, models and concepts are used to describe the causality and multi-dimensionality of specific local, regional or global phenomena and their corresponding problems, and students must be able to make meaning when confronted with or asked to produce such texts. So, what exactly are the competences needed to be literate in geography and deal with this interdependent study of Earth?

Geographic literacy (geo-literacy) is a concept combining different subject-specific skills and practices resulting in the mastery of a broad variety of media, databases, forms of representation and instruments relevant to geography. National Geographic (2012) defines geographic literacy as ‘the ability to reason about Earth systems and interconnections to make far-reaching decisions’ since humans are members of a global society and ‘face decisions on where to live, what to build, where to travel, how to conserve energy, how to wisely manage scarce resources, and how to cooperate or compete with others’ (Utami, Zain, & Sumarmi, Reference Utami, Zain and Sumarmi2018, p. 1). Thus, geographic literacy includes problem-solving skills, critical and creative thinking skills and the multi-causal reasoning skills needed to make those far-reaching decisions.

According to Edelson (Reference Edelson2011b), learners are prepared to make far-reaching decisions when teachers take three crucial components of geographical literacy into account: how our world works (interactions), how our world is connected (interconnections) and how to make well-reasoned decisions (implications). This means that the geographically literate are able to consider the complex nature of both human and environmental factors and use those considerations to make decisions in the field (Edelson, Reference Edelson2011a). To achieve this, students need to acquire visual, spatial and linguistic literacy skills in the field. First, visual literacy skills are of the utmost importance to geography since the foundation of geographical knowledge is based on the analysis of data in maps, podcasts, pictures, videos and statistics. Students need to be able to make meaning out of the data communicated through these different (visual) modes.

Second, geographers analyse and observe spatial relationships between local, regional and global geographical areas to answer questions and solve problems (e.g. Is fracking in the North Sea environmentally reasonable? How should we prepare for natural disasters in endangered areas?). For decision-making like this in the real world, individuals need to think and act geographically to trace causes and effects across space and time (Edelson, Reference Edelson2009). However, students need to do geography – that is, do geographic inquiry, conduct fieldwork and communicate their results – in order to develop this form of geographic literacy, and this doing must be at the centre of deep learning (Harte & Reitano, Reference Harte and Reitano2016).

Specifically regarding communication in the field and its required linguistic skills, progress in geographic literacy entails an increase in the ability to make meaning across the four activity domains of deeper learning: doing, organising, explaining and arguing geography. To master meaning-making across activity domains, teachers need to include both general academic language structures as well as subject-specific geographical language functions, genre conventions and text types in their classroom. A repertoire of geography-specific cognitive discourse functions (CDFs) is essential because it not only guides learners in their geographical thinking but also leads them to precise meaning-making. For example, if students are to work with discourse functions displaying cause and effect, conjunctions in the form of linking words and causal connectors are of the utmost importance since these seemingly small bits and pieces contribute to a successful and targeted task fulfilment (Berg, Reference Berg2020). Thus, learners need to use and understand not only a rich vocabulary with various technical terms but also sophisticated grammatical forms and patterns expressing a factual or neutral recollection of information to demonstrate an understanding of the multi-causal relationships of geographical issues.

Table 7.1 exemplifies the way in which activity domains and activities in geography can be related to CDFs and student output typical in geography.

7.2 Deeper Learning in Geography

As previously explained, at the centre of deeper understanding in geography are the abilities to successfully confront and understand its facts, concepts, inquiry methods and media (i.e. texts) and to effectively operate within the activity domains through the mastery of geographical output or text productions.

To expand textual understanding, students need to be able to decode geographical genre conventions, which mainly build on disciplinary terminology as well as different media and forms of presentation (e.g. maps, tables and charts). Teachers need to provide task- and text-specific forms of scaffolding to help learners decipher academic and disciplinary lexis, linguistic elements and text structures. When teaching text production and genre conventions across the activity domains, deep practice should be a guiding principle. This includes teaching common features and structures found in geographical genres, such as map interpretations, map analyses and oral and written problem explanations. For instance, when producing an oral explanation, students need to practise sentence frames and conjunctions of cause and effect to successfully make meaning.

Content relevance is the foundation of student involvement and learner autonomy and applies particularly to geography: Most thematic fields dealt with in the geography classroom, such as global warming and climate change, the COVID-19 pandemic and its socio-economic impact or global deforestation, are of current relevance to society and science as they are twenty-first-century challenges. This relevance needs to be made transparent to learners to spur their motivation and interest. Agency and accountability can be increased by focusing on content relevance. Learners feel more obliged and responsible for their own learning pathway if they confront problems that are relevant to them.

Furthermore, learning pathways also need to be differentiated with joint scaffolding development. In our heterogeneous classrooms, different students need to be offered different input and output scaffolding, as well as different ways of reaching a common goal in a shared overall learning task. To achieve this, it is necessary to provide scaffolding mechanisms, such as structural and language/phrase frames for output production on different levels. We can further enable personalised learning by using a variety of real-world forms of representation. By truly differentiating and individualising learning pathways in geography (e.g. through offering a choice of materials for a specific learning task or a variety of different assignments within an overall learning task), students are held accountable for their own learning process again.

Additionally, the understanding of multi-perspectivity in all sorts of texts also needs to be considered at all levels. Critical cultural awareness is developed in geography by considering the multi-perspectivity and interconnectedness of geographical problems. As students engage in a specific geographic subject area focusing on a precise and authentic problem, teachers need to lead them through a process of critically questioning and arguing different perspectives. This, in turn, is what increases content relevance for students again and fosters agency and accountability.

7.3 A Model Deeper Learning Episode in Geography: ‘Human Diet, Food Consumption and the Environment – Are We Eating Up Our Planet?’

The main objective of this deeper learning episode (DLE) is to foster oral explanations by listening to authentic radio interviews with subject experts. It is designed for eighth-grade (lower secondary) students in geography, focusing on the thematic area of global climate change and its correlation with human diet and nutrition. The CDF explaining is at the centre of this geographical investigation since the students are asked to produce their own oral explanations on the aforementioned topic. Explanations are an essential feature of science as well as a ‘fundamental classroom activity that engages students in epistemic practices of the discipline’ (Kang, Thompson, & Windschitl, Reference Kang, Thompson and Windschitl2014, p. 677).

As a key competence of critical thinking, explanations serve different functions from different perspectives. First, students build understanding and factual knowledge about a certain problem through explaining. Second, student explanations mirror understanding and therefore disclose thinking structures to the subject teacher. Furthermore, students need to act faster and more spontaneously in oral explanations when compared to text production in the written mode. This spontaneity allows teachers to detect deficiencies and learning obstacles effectively and target these problem areas through scaffolding and deep practice.

Many considerations must be taken into account when designing task sequences aimed at explanation production (see Table 7.2). One key element in increasing competence in explaining builds on the foundation of explanations itself: What accounts for a good explanation in geography? What differentiates a sound explanation from a less profound one? Learners need to be able to verbalise their thinking structures and their reasoning for a specific conclusion. Moreover, learners need patterns and structures to imitate, follow and adapt to successfully master and communicate the causality represented in geographical problems. Therefore, students need deep practice in monological speaking in different ways and settings and concerning different aspects of a topic in order to become confident in explaining and to establish a routine in oral communication situations.

7.4 Alignment of the Deeper Learning Episode

High task fidelity is ensured by combining scientific information with real-world knowledge and hands-on practical skill training in oral explanations based on decoding, adaptation and transfer of patterns found in the audio materials.

7.5 How Do Learners Move from Surface Learning to Consolidation to the Transfer Stage?

The implementation of listening material according to the Listening for Literacies model serves as the vehicle to move students from surface learning to deeper learning. Specifically, it is the combination of focusing on subject-specific aspects as well as general structural aspects in oral explanations that helps learners to move along the learning pathway.

Provide Feedback, Feed-Up and Feed-Forward/Demonstrate Basic Understanding and Reflect

There are different opportunities for feedback and reflection within this DLE. First and foremost, the teacher serves as a mentor and observer and gives individual feedback on the completion of the task sequence. Especially at the beginning, the teacher ensures that students have a clear understanding of the demands of an oral explanation (feed-up) with the help of the PREP-Sheet. Moreover, the teacher can give feedback on the cause-and-effect schemes since these are used as structural support for the verbalisation of the explanation (feedback and feed-forward), using the assessment grid in Table 7.3. Finally, students demonstrate their understanding about the content and their knowledge about prosody and structure in using the evaluation grid (Table 7.4) while listening to other explanations (feedback, feed-up, feed-forward). Particularly during the phases of repetition and practice, teachers are free to give feedback (e.g. with the assessment grid introduced later in this chapter).

Table 7.3 Assessment grid for oral explanations in geography (adapted and revised from Berg [Reference Berg2020, pp. 83–84])

	Score in Points
	3 Points: Excellent!	2 Points: Well done!	1 Point: Not there yet!	0 Points: Not OK.
Cause-and-Effect Relations	A clear framework of causes and effects is detectable in your explanation. There is a combination of multiple causes and effects that relate in different aspects to one another.	You used different causes and effects and related them to each other rather than just listing them. However, you did not put the causes and effects into a bigger topical framework.	You named different aspects in your explanation; however, you didn’t distinguish clearly between causes and effects. At this point, your oral explanation sounds more like a description because there are no connections between your mentioned aspects.	Your explanation was rather incomplete or incorrect.
Linking	All your sentences are consistently linked with a broad variety of different linking words and phrases.	Most of your sentences are linked with different linking words and phrases. However, you used a few repetitions.	A few of your sentences are linked with one or two similar linking words or phrases, but most of your aspects are listed.	You forgot to use linking words or phrases.
Geographical Terminology	You used all necessary or even more subject-specific terms in your explanation. You used them thoroughly and correctly.	You used a lot of subject-specific terms; however, some were used incorrectly and/or some are missing in your explanation.	You used a few subject-specific terms. Some of them were used correctly, some incorrectly. Some terminology was even missing.	You didn’t use subject-specific terms correctly or didn’t use any at all.
Specifying Verbs	Whenever possible, you used a specifying verb in the correct context.	You often used specifying verbs within the correct context.	In most sentences, you used general verbs; however, there were few instances of specifying verb use.	You did not use specifying verbs or used them inappropriately.

Table 7.4 Evaluation grid for speaking like a pro

The speaker …
Content
… produced a well-structured speech/explanation/… that helped the listener to notice and remember significant points.
… named causes and effects.
… explained how causes relate to effects.
… used linking words to connect ideas.
Intonation and Rhythm
… used word stress effectively to sound clear and comprehensible.
… focused on speech rhythm, meaning that the voice was louder and clearer when signalling content words and weaker and faster when words were less important.
… did not sound abrupt and spoke with a flow that made it easy for the listener to follow.
Pausing
… made appropriate pauses to put emphasis on specific aspects (e.g. after giving an example).
… used pausing successfully instead of abruptly stopping to give the listener time to follow or think.

Facilitate/Acquire Deeper Understanding and Deep Practice

With the materials of this DLE, deeper understanding of its topics is closely linked to raising awareness about the function of prosody in spoken communication. In Part A of the DLE, learners listen to a specified part of the audio, read the printed transcript excerpt and conjecture why the words are printed in different sizes. That way, they learn about content words (i.e. the words in an utterance that carry meaning), helping them to understand that knowledge about stress patterns can enable them to hear details of a given text better. Afterwards, information about the ecological footprint of consumer goods is further decoded by analysing the structural composition of the explanation(s) in the audio text. For this, students follow a sequence of tasks where they organise the causes of an ecological footprint as well as its effects in a graphic visualisation. This visualisation again scaffolds the oral explanation at the end of the task sequence. As deep understanding requires deep practice, students work on a task demonstrating strategies to gain time while speaking. This serves as further scaffolding for the final oral explanation concerning Part A because students are enabled to gain time while speaking. To support transfer into real-world situations, learners look for examples of these strategies in the listening text and eventually use these strategies playfully in the last task. This way, students transfer their newly acquired strategic knowledge and embed this independently in their knowledge construction.

In Part B of the DLE, students focus on the deforestation caused by meat production. They practise applying their knowledge about prosodic cues (here, content words) from Part A of the episode directly into Part B (deep practice). Here, they are to focus only on content words during the first hearing. This helps them both understand the text and realise their own potential to decode spoken discourse. In line with deep practice, students expand their prosodic knowledge with a focus on word stress by analysing speech pauses within the audio material. This knowledge can be applied while listening and, in turn, serves as a scaffold for the following task, where causes and effects for changes in the environment due to our diet are distinguished.

7.6 Conclusion and Outlook

Adapting the pluriliteracies teaching for deeper learning model to a geography context, teachers must rethink their way of lesson planning, their own understanding of subject-specific literacy and the implementation of methods that foster the development of such literacies. It demands great openness in terms of time structures as well as material development. By focusing on the language use in geography within different forms of representation, as shown here with audio materials, students can acquire a subject-specific literacy if they are exposed to a learning environment that puts emphasis on scaffolding the various obstacles to mastering subject-specific language. Knowledge about speech prosody is paramount for understanding spoken (academic) discourse, so the biggest challenge geography teachers face is to finally consider and apply this into their material design and lesson planning. Key to the acquisition of such linguistic knowledge are well-designed learning opportunities in which students detect, identify, practise, apply and transfer language structures in all modes, for all text types, and on all levels to different geographic topics.

7.7 Learning Materials

Geography for Everyone: Human diet, food consumption and the environment – are we eating up our planet?

Listening to the radio, checking social media, or watching TV, we notice something that is often discussed is the impact we as consumers have on the environment. But what exactly is that impact, and how can its causes and effects be explained? Are we eating up our planet? Let’s explore this question and record our own podcast, Geography for Everyone. Why? Because everyone needs to be able to answer this question, whether schoolteachers, students or parents – it’s our planet. Sounds good? Let’s start!

In the following, you will work with real podcasts that deal with the guiding question. With the help of these audio materials, you will be able to explain and answer this question to record a professional yet understandable answer for our Geography for Everyone podcast at our school. You will work with two different podcasts, A and B. Listen to the texts on your own and in your own tempo. Do not rush but take your time.

Follow the task sequence in the order of the worksheets. With each worksheet, you will have more information and knowledge. Also, you will feel well prepared for your podcast recording. For better orientation, see the lesson plan below.

Lesson plan

Lesson	Associated Worksheets	Approximate Time Frame
1. Preparation	PREP-Sheet (obligatory)	45 minutes
Podcast A: What’s the environmental impact of a loaf of bread? Now we know. (Chatterjee, Reference Chatterjee2017) https://www.npr.org/sections/thesalt/2017/02/27/517531611/whats-the-environmental-footprint-of-a-loaf-of-bread-now-we-know?t=1614339378381
2. Word stress (LfPFootnote 1)	Worksheet 1	140–180 minutes
3. The ecological footprint (LfSFootnote 2)	Worksheet 2
4. Time to fill time (LfP)	Worksheet 3
Podcast B: Congress to Nutritionists: Don’t talk about the environment. (Dan Charles, Reference Charles2014) https://www.npr.org/sections/thesalt/2014/12/15/370427441/congress-to-nutritionists-dont-talk-about-the-environment
5. Word stress (LfP)	Worksheet 1	180 minutes
6. Finding details in the podcast (LfCFootnote 3)	Worksheet 2
7. Pausing and word stress (LfP)	Worksheet 3
8. Human diet and the environment – causes and effects (LfS)	Worksheet 4 + Visualisation
9. Finale – Recording of Geography for Everyone	Worksheet 5	60 minutes
10. Peer and teacher feedback on student podcasts	Evaluation Grid	90 minutes

Worksheet 7.1PREP-Sheet: How Can I Give a Good Explanation?

Worksheet 7.2.1Worksheet A I: The Carbon Footprint of a Loaf of BreadFootnote ⁴

Worksheet 7.2.2Worksheet A 2: The Carbon Footprint of a Loaf of BreadFootnote ⁵

Worksheet 7.3Worksheet A 3: Tiiiiime to Fill Tiiiime

Worksheet 7.4Worksheet B I: The Louder, the Better

Worksheet 7.5Worksheet B 2: Finding Details in ‘Nutrition and the Environment’

Worksheet 7.6Worksheet B 3: Pausing & Word Stress in Speech

Worksheet 7.7Worksheet B 4: Human Diet and the Environment – Causes and Effects

Evaluation Grid for Speaking like a Pro

8.1 Inquiry and Literacy in History

Historical knowledge evolves from evidence-based investigations of what happened and its significance for us and, therefore, history is a problem-solving discipline that involves questioning, investigating, understanding and interpreting past developments and events. Historical inquiry starts with open-ended, guiding questions that are ‘answered with selected facts arranged in the form of an explanatory paradigm’ (Fischer, Reference Fischer1970, pp. xv, 4). The process can be deductive, which means a historian can prove or refute a hypothesis about a historical process (e.g. ‘Bismarck managed to unify Germany as a nation’). Additionally, a historian can approach problems inductively, meaning he or she investigates sources in order to find a pattern or concept and then develops a theory from those findings (e.g. ‘What evidence do the sources provide about diversity and uniformity in the German Empire?’). Either way, a historian must have both narrative and historical literacy to understand and contribute to the discipline’s knowledge base and research efforts.

For the subject of history, terms such as narrative literacy or historical literacy have been developed to characterise the ability to participate in historically oriented discourses. Maria José Rodrigo (Reference Rodrigo, Carrettero and Voss1994) described narrative literacy as the ability to arrange information around protagonists while preserving the temporal–causal structure and historical literacy as the ability to master key historical concepts and be scientifically active like a historian. To accomplish this, key historical concepts, such as ‘nation’, have to be recognised by the learners and used as time- and location-bound. Since historical reconstruction and presentation of results are closely linked to the competence of storytelling, as well as the abilities to criticise, argue, form judgements and present information on the basis of the professional handling of sources and representations, the terms narrative and historical literacy have been used synonymously in more recent curricula and publications, especially in the German context (Ministerium für Kultus, Jugend und Sport Baden-Württemberg, 2004).

The main task of the historian is to deal with primary and secondary sources and the historical evidence they contain. Students have to learn to evaluate a source’s reliability in both written and spoken modes, recognise the author’s subjectivity and resolve contradicting findings (Rodrigo, Reference Rodrigo, Carrettero and Voss1994). This requires sophisticated grammar skills that allow the learners to differentiate between perspectives, time levels and degrees of probability as well as an elevated vocabulary rich in technical terms that make it possible to speak about the time period they wish to refer to. In order to promote historical literacy in history lessons, it makes sense to work with the linguistic and cognitive pattern of the text types students are supposed to produce (e.g. primary or secondary source analysis, historical evaluation or argumentation).

As far as register is concerned, the subject of history uses so-called colligations or colligatory concepts. These are terms for larger contexts or connections between individual events or phenomena that also have an explanatory function (e.g. ‘Renaissance’, ‘Industrial Revolution’) (Walsh, Reference Walsh1960). In addition to that, there are technical terms in the narrower sense of the word, like ‘Berlin Blockade’ or ‘Iron Curtain’, which are more specific to a single historical process. The historical–political register also contains subject-relevant collocations, which include expressions such as ‘to pass an Act’ or ‘to negotiate an armistice’. In comparison to the technical terms, these subject-specific phrases can help the learners to language historical narrations on a more general level and in an authentic and appropriate way. By enhancing their knowledge of historical jargon and collocations, students can make progress in discipline-specific meaning-making.

Progress in meaning-making in history entails an increase in competence in the activity domains of doing, organising, explaining and arguing history, which can be observed in the students’ presentation of historical information and the quality of their production of historical text types. Historical meaning-making can be enhanced by enlarging the students’ repertoire of general academic language structures as well as specific historical language functions and their command of genre conventions of historical text types, which show them a pathway to history-specific ways of meaning-making. The more precisely the students can follow history-specific genre conventions and the wider repertoire of history-specific discourse functions they have, the greater the opportunity for precise meaning-making to take place in the course of a historical investigation.

Table 8.1 shows the way in which activity domains and activities in history can be related to cognitive discourse functions (CDFs) and student products that are typical in history.

8.2 Deeper Learning in History

Deeper understanding in history means that historical events, structures and processes can be described, analysed and assessed in order to create a narration in accordance with the scientific standards of the subject. Therefore, the learners need patterns of inquiry and representation that can scaffold historical thinking and narration:

To deepen textual understanding, the students need to be able to decipher technical terms and abstract concepts, which can be done by defining advanced words or by annotating difficult passages, especially if the text is written in the learners’ second language. Content relevance can be increased by relating the historical matter into a present-day context or by using a mode they are interested in (e.g. digital modes). Critical cultural consciousness can be developed by presenting and critically questioning different contemporary and/or retrospective perspectives. Agency and accountability can be increased by giving students responsibility for the accuracy of the historical investigation and asking for evidence and referencing. Learning pathways can be differentiated by offering optional input and output scaffolding for learners with different language backgrounds as well as providing different assignments within the overall learning task. Deep practice can be fostered by practising recurring genre conventions (e.g. source analysis and historical evaluation) with different types of sources and in different historical contexts. Scaffolding can be offered on different levels by using language and method frames for text production on varying language levels.

8.3 A Model Deeper Learning Episode in History: ‘After Unifying the German Reich with “Blood and Iron” in 1871, Did Bismarck Manage to Unify German Society as a Nation?’ (Year 11)

The main objective of the following deeper learning episode (DLE) in history for upper secondary learners is the narrativisation of the social tensions following the formation of the German Empire in 1871, which is guided by the following question: ‘After unifying the German Reich with “blood and iron” in 1871, did Bismarck manage to unify German society as a nation?’

The topic has relevance to the learners as it deals with the concept of national identity and diversity, which is part of the current political discourse. Moreover, the learning product is chosen according to learners’ interests: students will create an instructional video to answer the guiding question in an evidence-based yet creative way by portraying the varying views of the different groups within German society at the time.

During the project, the learners are supposed to acquire and analyse information on different social and political groups in the German Empire (e.g. their power status and their relation to Reich Chancellor von Bismarck) and evaluate Bismarck’s domestic policy, with special attention paid to his approach to dealing with potential opposition.

On the following pages, a grid with an overview of the planning aspects is shown, which are meant to be aligned with each other based on the principles of the pluriliteracies approach to deeper learning (Table 8.2). A didactic commentary explains this process and how learners move from surface learning to consolidation and finally to the transfer stage.

8.4 Alignment of the Deeper Learning Episode

In alignment with deeper learning principles, the proposed learning episode takes into account students’ strengths, needs and interests, provides opportunities to build their historical literacy and successfully implements tasks that cover all activity domains. High task fidelity in this DLE is achieved by combining academic research on a social and political history topic with the entertaining element of role play and a digital mode of representation.

8.5 How Do Learners Move from Surface Learning to Consolidation to the Transfer Stage?

In this DLE, text production is the major vehicle for the movement from surface to deeper learning. Because the historical knowledge derived from the research first has to be written and arranged on a fact sheet (i.e. a mind map or structured notes), then presented orally in class, then transformed into a script for a fictional interview and finally recorded, there is a lot of practice in organising and communicating historical information in varying forms of representation, language styles and modes. The most difficult step in the process is the shift from more informal, less sophisticated language to a more academic language in the final historical evaluation, which is the most advanced text type and summarises the whole learning process. This progression along the mode continuum consolidates learning.

The following section will outline the different stages of the DLE, explaining each stage through both the perspective of the teacher and learner. The process can be seen in the depiction below.

8.6 Conclusion and Outlook

Pluriliteracies teaching for deeper learning makes sense for history teachers who want to make full use of language as a driving force for learning history. By focusing on the language use in different modes and text types, students can acquire a subject-specific language repertoire along with the historical facts, concepts, procedures and strategies they need to produce an accurate historical narration. By giving and receiving criteria-oriented feedback on various historical text types, the learners are empowered to language their learning process as well as their historical narration and thus experience deep historical learning.

Digital learning environments, such as the one from this learning episode, can help mentors to provide learners with history learning tasks that are motivating and offer students a self-empowering, transparent path towards subject-specific progress via extensive scaffolding and efficient assessment tools.

8.7 Learning Materials

9.1 Inquiry and Literacy in Political Studies

Political knowledge evolves from evidence-based investigation of power structures, political interests and decision-making in societies. Therefore, political science is a problem-solving discipline that involves questioning, investigating, understanding and interpreting political developments and events. Inquiry into political science aims at revealing the relationships underlying political events and conditions while also constructing general principles about the way the world of politics works. In order to build and refine precise and persuasive theories about these relationships and general principles, it is important for the written work of political scientists to be conceptually precise and well substantiated by empirical evidence (The Writing Center, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, n.d.). Though this may be true, the term political literacy is often used to describe the goal of political education in schools, such as citizen competence or preparing citizens for democracy, with little reference to the importance of discipline-specific language (Westholm, Lindquist & Niemi, Reference Westholm, Lindquist, Niemi and Ichilov1990). For example, Denver and Hands (Reference Denver and Hands1990) define political literacy as ‘the knowledge and understanding of the political process and political issues which enables people to perform their roles as citizens effectively’ (p. 263). That being said, for political participation to be successful, effective communication and appropriate languaging is undoubtedly essential.

One essential aspect of political literacy is understanding political vocabulary, which can be understood both in a broad and narrow sense. Looking at it more broadly, political vocabulary can be considered anything talked about in political discussions. Words such as climate, vaccination or taxation are politically relevant because the issues they refer to are the subject of controversial disputes in public communication. Thus, political vocabulary is littered with many words from our everyday life and various professional fields due to the all-encompassing nature of politics. Many words that are not ‘political’ in the strict sense of the word are, therefore, semantically charged in certain contexts and then receive an additional meaning in the political sphere (Grinth, Reference Grinth2010). This additional political use of language must be distinguished from political vocabulary in the narrower sense, which can be divided into four groups: vocabulary referring to political institutions (e.g. ‘constitution’), vocabulary referring to particular policy areas (e.g. ‘trade agreement’), vocabulary for political interaction (e.g. ‘declaration of solidarity’) and vocabulary referring to ideology (e.g. ‘conservatism’) (Grinth, Reference Grinth2010). Additionally, within this vocabulary are subject-relevant collocations, which include expressions such as ‘to amend a resolution’ or ‘to draft a proposal’. More general than the technical terms, these subject-specific phrases can help the learners to language political texts in an authentic and appropriate way.

In addition to the importance of language, it is also important that political scientists understand the key concepts on which the discipline is built. This includes basic concepts like power (Who can exercise it?), laws (How do they come about and do they provide justice?), common good (What is good for the community?), system (What characterises coexistence in modern societies?), public life/policy (What is the difference between human activity in public and private life?) and scarcity (How should the handling of scarce goods be politically regulated?) (Sander, Reference Sander2009). These concepts and their sub-concepts provide a basis for the construction of knowledge in politics and are the main instruments of meaning-making – that is, understanding and being understood in political discourse.

Progress in meaning-making in political science entails an increase in competence in the activity domains of doing, organising, explaining and arguing politics, which can be observed in students’ presentation of political information and the quality of their production of political text types. Therefore, meaning-making in political science can be enhanced by enlarging the students’ repertoire of general academic language structures as well as specific political language functions and their command of the genre conventions of political text types. Essentially, the more precisely the students can follow the specific genre conventions of political text types and make use of specific cognitive discourse functions, the more precise the meaning-making that can take place in the course of a political investigation.

Table 9.1 shows the way in which tasks in political science and the activity domains are related to cognitive discourse functions (CDFs) and student products that are typical in political communication.

9.2 Deeper Learning in Political Science

Deeper understanding in political science means that political measures, events, structures and processes can be described, analysed and assessed in accordance with the scientific standards of the subject. Therefore, the learners need patterns of inquiry and representation that can scaffold political thinking and communication.

As educators, there are many things we can do to help students foster these deeper learning strategies. For example, by defining difficult words or annotating hard-to-understand passages, especially when a text is written in a learners’ second language, we help learners decipher technical terms and abstract concepts and thus deepen their textual understanding. When we relate political matters to their lives and challenge them to take a stance, content relevance can be increased. Moreover, when we present and critically question different ideological perspectives or interests, our students’ critical cultural consciousness can be developed. Agency and accountability can be increased by giving students responsibility for the accuracy of the political investigation and asking for evidence and referencing. Furthermore, we can differentiate learning pathways by offering optional input and output scaffolding for learners with different language backgrounds, as well as providing different assignments within the overall learning task. Deep practice can be offered by practising recurring genre conventions (e.g. policy cycle or conflict analysis based on a variety of sources and with reference to different political contexts). By providing language and method frames for text production on different levels, we can scaffold students’ learning and provide level-appropriate guidance.

9.3 A Model Deeper Learning Episode in Political Science: Online Model United Nations Debating the Question of ‘Reducing the Harmful Impact of Informal E-Waste Recycling’ (Year 10)

The main objective of the following deeper learning episode (DLE) in political science is developing a deep understanding of the way in which political problems can be solved multilaterally by simulating the formal and informal problem-solving procedures of the United Nations. This includes learning about the social and linguistic conventions of the diplomatic process, with a special focus on diplomatic language in oral formats, such as opening speeches, negotiations during the lobbying process and debates in committee sessions, as well as written genres, such as amendments and resolutions.

The concept of a Model United Nations (MUN) is not new, seeing as simulations of the United Nations have been practised since the 1950s, and prior to that, simulations of the League of Nations took place from the 1920s. Usually, a MUN is practised in a club at school or university, preparing the learners for a large-scale official conference event, such as The Hague International Model United Nations. Typically, only a few ambitious students from each club can take part in the conferences as participation is limited to a small number per school or university. Being a part of the club means travelling, having international encounters and dressing appropriately for the various MUN events.

This DLE makes use of the enormous learning opportunities that this format offers with respect to plurilateral learning. However, it brings the concept of a MUN conference to the school level and uses normal school lessons for the preparation of the conference. The conference itself then only needs one school day, in which the learners attend the conference online or live at school, dressed appropriately for the occasion. Teachers can choose to limit the participation to one grade level (e.g. all of Year 10) or even just a single class, which reduces the number of participating member states. Nevertheless, all participants are still able to benefit from the great plurilateral learning opportunities provided by such a format.

The conference will be built around making a resolution to the political problem of ‘reducing the harmful impact of informal e-waste recycling’. The topic is relevant to the learners as it deals with a pressing environmental problem caused by the unsustainable way in which electronic products are used in the Western world – that is, their world. Specifically, informal e-waste recycling refers to when electronic devices are sold to scrap dealers, who improperly handle and dispose of the equipment and its parts, which leads to the release of the toxins contained within the devices.

The learning episode begins with an introduction to the concepts of MUN and informal e-waste recycling. Students then work in teams to research the different aspects of informal e-waste recycling (e.g. economic, environmental, and social). This research will serve them in the next step, where they choose a country and analyse the problem from that country’s perspective. Once each student knows his/her country’s stance on the matter, they individually draft a resolution on how to manage informal e-waste recycling, in which the problem and its possible solutions are laid out. In the following step, students prepare an opening speech for the General Assembly, in which they once again explain the problem and suggest possible solutions. The culmination of their research and text production (i.e. the resolution and opening speech) is the conference on the last day, in which students represent their countries as delegates, propose their solutions to the problem, and come to a final co-constructed resolution on how to handle the matter via lobbying, negotiating and debating.

The learning product (i.e. the co-constructed UN resolution) promotes creativity and problem-solving skills while also providing authenticity by giving students a realistic insight into the way multilateral political decision-making works. The DLE is structured in such a way that it leads the learners through different modes of political communication, culminating in a public debate at a MUN Conference. The public nature of the event motivates learners to properly prepare themselves for the debate, which includes the acquisition of profound knowledge on the topic and the languaging of their respective political positions. In order to be able to play their role as a UN member state authentically, the learners must acquire information on the member state they represent, its power status and its political position concerning the issue of electronic waste, analysing the environmental, economic, social and political dimensions of the problem from that state’s perspective.

In Table 9.2, a grid is shown with an overview of the planning aspects guided by the principles of the pluriliteracies approach to deeper learning. Afterwards, a didactic commentary explains how this DLE is aligned with the aforementioned principles and how learners move from surface learning to consolidation and finally to the transfer stage.

9.4 Alignment of the Deeper Learning Episode

In alignment with deeper learning principles (Table 9.2), the proposed learning episode (see Table 9.3) takes into account learners’ strengths, needs and interests, provides opportunities to build their political literacy and successfully implements tasks that cover all activity domains. High task fidelity in this DLE is predominately achieved by the authentic UN simulation – that is, by researching, presenting, speaking and writing like a diplomat with the task of finding and negotiating political solutions to a global problem.

9.5 Movement from Surface Learning to Consolidation to the Transfer Stage

In this DLE in-depth research, organisation of information and text production are the major vehicles for the movement from surface to deeper learning. Specifically, the political knowledge derived from the research is first rearranged in a collaborative policy cycle analysis, then used to formulate a political position in accordance with the country profile, transformed into a draft resolution and, finally, reduced to be presented in an opening speech. This process provides ample opportunity to practise organising and explaining political information in different forms of representation, in different language styles and in different modes. Approaching political knowledge from these different angles propels students from surface learning to consolidation to knowledge transfer. The most difficult move is the switch to a diplomatic language level in the draft resolution, which requires intensive teacher feedback concerning content and language. The formal language and adherence to the UN rules of procedure is even more challenging in their spontaneous use during debate and, therefore, also needs intensive scaffolding (see Worksheet 9.7 – Conference Outline) and exemplary behaviour by the mentor or student chairing the committee sessions and the General Assembly. So, learning is consolidated by moving along the mode continuum.

9.6 Conclusion and Outlook

Pluriliteracies teaching for deeper learning makes sense for political science teachers who want to make full use of language as a driving force for learning political science. By focusing on the language use in different modes and text types, the students can cultivate a subject-specific language repertoire while also acquiring the political facts, concepts, procedures and strategies they need to produce appropriate political communication. By giving and receiving criteria-oriented feedback on various political text types, the learners are empowered to language their learning process as well as their political communication and thus experience deep political learning.

Digital learning environments can facilitate the setting up of complex learning task, such as a MUN conference, and help to save time, paper and organisational work, which might put off teachers from entertaining such formats. To make use of them can prove very rewarding in terms of achieving the main goal of political education, which is for the learners to become politically literate and empower themselves as citizens.

9.7 Learning Materials

Worksheet 9.4Policy Cycle Analysis

Writing Frame: Opening Speech (max. 1 minute)

Worksheet 9.6How to Express Yourself as a Delegate

10.1 Redefining Literature as Subject Teaching and Learning in French?

The complexity of rethinking language learning as a subject discipline within the formal school curriculum with its own knowledge base, skills and processes has more recently been brought into sharper focus due to an increase in bilingual education and the attention paid to the role of language learning and using. Learning languages traditionally involving disconnected language competences to be used at some point in the future or applied generically across other disciplines, which defines language learning as acquiring increasing linguistic fluency through understanding the syntax and grammar of a specific language. More recent pedagogic moves in pluriliteracies thinking have provided opportunities to experiment in building alternative experiences, especially with beginner or near-beginner learners in lower secondary school. This involves a shared exploration of the nature of a language (e.g. French) and how understanding (meaning-making) and using language to communicate appropriately and to construct dynamic, deeper knowledge based in creative, academic and ‘real-world’ contexts can offer purposeful and motivating learning experiences for learners. Such repositioning responds in practical ways to Kramsch’s statement:

Addressing the most fundamental question offers a useful starting point: how can we define French (or German or Spanish and so on) as an academic discipline in secondary school curricula? The centuries-old legacy of seeing ‘modern languages’ within the classical Western language tradition (reading Latin and Greek) still persists, translated into common classroom practices, especially in the earlier years of language learning. These practices include, for example, writing – foregrounding grammatical systems, building vocabulary and imitating models to replicate and demonstrate understanding of structural concepts; listening and speaking – predicated on repetition, non-authentic imposed ‘communicative’ scenarios; and reading – using simple, specifically created texts to demonstrate ‘understanding’ at surface level and subsequently deciphering authentic literature, shifting from explicit to more implicit understanding. This is neither adequate nor appropriate for secondary school learners in contemporary society. Despite the advent of the communicative approach, many foreign language programmes continue to use a grammatical spine to develop reading, speaking, listening and writing skills, located in set topics such as ‘house and home’ or ‘transport’ – often reducing the potential cognitive level of the thematic content to match the linguistic level, especially for younger learners. The value, therefore, of increasingly using language development as a vehicle for deepening intercultural consciousness and transdisciplinary world knowledges remains untapped – building knowledges other than linguistic ones has not been considered a priority. Consequently, teenagers may find their language experiences boring, irrelevant or disconnected. So, the processes set out in this chapter reconfigure the cognitive components of French language and literacies to reconcile working with challenging relevant literature (from individual and local to transnational and global knowledges) that matches student cognitive abilities with access to the language required for meaning-making and communicating or languaging their understanding appropriately. This is the subject discipline.

Two phenomena have more recently gained attention, demanding a rethink in classroom language learning: Content and Language Integrated Learning (CLIL) and the literacies movement redefine the role played by language teachers across different models of bilingual education; and pluriliteracies, particularly the pluriliteracies teaching for deeper learning (PTDL) model, provide alternative means of meaning-making and using languages purposefully to move students towards deeper learning, personal growth and enrichment in our multilingual, multicultural world. Yet, while subject educators teaching through other languages remain firmly rooted in their discipline, rethinking the teaching and learning of French as a subject discipline raises issues about what this means for language teachers who have linguistic expertise with indeterminate intercultural experiences. This sometimes leads to the misconception that language teachers are to ‘serve’ other subject disciplines – a contention that has been well counter-argued. Another challenge is overcoming the ‘alien’ concept of developing literacies skills in a language that is not the main language of schooling, especially in the lower years of secondary education. This, too, is linked to widely held views about literacies development in a first language, focusing on learning to speak and read appropriately, which is disconnected from learning other languages, and is built on the notion that languages and literature are separate entities. It seems, then, that many current language learning practices reflect the absence of dialogue until recently amongst practitioners, educators and researchers – dialogue that brings together multiple perspectives and epistemologies to reposition languages as an academic discipline in our contemporary educational world.

Pountain (Reference Pountain2019) usefully describes language learning as a discipline defined by an interrelationship between language in use, linguistic structures and literature, which he defines as the critical study of cultural manifestations that depend on the language, that is, multimodal literary texts. He refers to these as the three Ls (language, linguistics and literature). In addition, Goldman et al.’s (Reference Goldman, Britt and Brown2016) earlier work details two fundamental considerations for rethinking language learning as a subject discipline. The first demands a redefinition of text that impacts how and why text is used as a dynamic learning space. When texts – ranging from social media to literature – are used as diverse multimodal cultural tools, they open up an exploration of the human condition from social, economic, cultural, philosophical and political perspectives, not constrained by more traditional subject boundaries. Literary texts offer opportunities where learners can collaboratively and explicitly develop reading skills that investigate genres, modes, purpose and multilayered meaning-making. In turn, such understanding, when mediated and applied to learners’ own composition, encourages content and age-relevant possibilities that promote agency and connectivity across languages. According to Goldman et al. (Reference Hallet2016), this requires a shift from the traditional mono-textual reading model, which only focuses on reading one text at a time, to an intertext model, so that learners can develop the ability to detect, evaluate and resolve potential conflicts between information sources and expectations. Texts then become the currency for critical understanding and cultural consciousness rather than providing learners with surface-level comprehension exercises. Reading and reasoning using a wide range of texts leads to creative writing as learners deepen their cognitive, cultural and linguistic skills.

The second consideration follows on and focuses on task design. The need to shift from prioritising ‘performance’ tasks to rebalancing these with learning tasks that generate different types of knowledges along with curiosity and spontaneity for ‘digging deeper’ becomes clear. From this perspective, it is fundamental to demonstrate, through additional language and literacies development, an understanding of the philosophy, reasoning and purposes behind societal behaviours, lived experiences and world events. The choice of texts is guided by learners’ interests, identities, creativity and critical responsiveness. The choice of texts also reflects their narrative, expository or argumentative nature, described by Hallet (Reference Hallet2016) as macro-genres detailed according to micro-genres (such as recount, anecdote, explanation, exposition or persuasion) and modes. The goal is now to bridge ‘life concepts’ across other subject disciplines through developing and applying the necessary language to develop and deepen (pluri)literacies and (pluri)literary disciplinary knowledges and discourses using genre-specific tasks relating to activity domains – that is, ways of doing, organising, explaining and arguing.

Of course, there is a need to gather evidence and justify experimental practices during timetabled language lessons. The examples outlined in the chapter demonstrate evolving deeper learning episodes (DLEs) in a school context, based on practitioner thinking and cross-school dialogue, discussions with researchers and, above all, listening to learners.

The materials in this chapter focus on the development of creative and literary reading and writing in French with two strands: as language development and as a mode of discovery in cognitive and socio-cultural terms. Each strand has a knowledge base: a (pluri)literacies strand that opens the door to ‘understanding the world’ (Freire, Reference Freire2000) by developing specific reasoning, analytical, creative and critical skills through the lens of another language, underpinned by growing linguistic competence; and the cognitive and metacognitive processes for deepening student understanding of multilingual, multicultural worlds through multimodal texts – broadly ranging from works of literature to social media. Carefully selected by the teachers and learners, texts of a social, cultural, political and historical nature offer themes and language-rich worldviews from the personal to the global, requiring multilevel analysis to understand how language is the conduit of interpretation and sense-making that enables learners to deepen their understanding of how working with authentic texts provides creative, reflective experiences. Carter (Reference Carter2007) refers to these opportunities as using the power of more contextualised and relativised theories of language and literature. In short, this requires students to develop both textual fluency and linguistic fluency, where textual fluency is the ability to critically evaluate and produce appropriate multimodal text and text types in another language (secondary discourse) building on diverse primary discourse and increasingly complex literary texts.

Hyland’s (Reference Hyland, Starke-Meyerring, Paré, Artemeva, Horne and Yousoubova2011) knowledge domains provide practical framing for language teachers to consider the literary knowledge base in their task design:

• Content knowledge (ideas, concepts related to human condition/world themes)

• System knowledge (syntax, lexis, grammar)

• Process knowledge (strategies for text construction)

• Genre knowledge (purpose, values, meaning-making)

• Context/Cultural knowledge (communities, cultural presence)

The skills involved in developing a literary knowledge base need to be practised and progressed through both learning and performance tasks. In this example, creative writing in French embedded in developing reading and reasoning skills includes ‘noticing’ technical and structural moves, sense-making, interpreting and reflecting critically. Reading and reasoning skills, for example, involve synthesising, argumentation, evaluation and demonstration, which in turn require tasks to develop relevant and specific linguistic forms, functions and language use.

In this particular case, the end goal of the first year of language learning for near-beginner learners is to develop creative literary writing skills in French through modelling, analysing and exploring how meaning-making works. Throughout a series of lessons targeting creative writing in French, learners are encouraged to experience the following.

• Understand how specific features of multimodal text and layers of conceptual meaning are expressed through language (e.g. strategies, genre moves, sequencing, functions, grammatical functions and lexis) in order to enable them to demonstrate deeper understanding through applying their own skills and knowledge to their own texts.

• Build a repertoire of cognitive and metacognitive strategies to understand, analyse, interpret and construct a range of text types and genres for meaning, social purpose and context. This marks a move away from single texts used for comprehension to multiple texts for noticing, analysis and interpreting. It also signifies that, when appropriate, more than one language may be used for deepening understanding of the strategies and processes required to read and write creatively in French (i.e. translanguaging).

• Develop critical awareness of meaning-making processes, building on creative and culturally responsive tasks which seek to develop a deeper understanding, going from ‘knowledge telling’ (planning, drafting, revising, redrafting and editing) to ‘knowledge transforming’ (through social interaction, multiple perspectives and critical evaluation) (Manchón, Reference Manchón and Manchón2011).

The following example of a DLE (Deeper Learning Episode 2) is the second in a series of three DLEs spanning one academic year. The sequencing of the three episodes is detailed in Section 10.3. Deeper Learning Episode 2 is based on a pluriliteracies-inspired theme that was co-designed with younger learners: to develop the necessary skills and knowledges (literary, historical, creative evocative descriptions and emergent ideas compared to current society) for everyone to be and feel like a (literary) creative writer (and reader) in French. Learner interest was triggered by reading multimodal texts, drawing on descriptions of Gothic landscapes and events taking place in them (learners’ choice), with progression pathways over one academic year focusing on skills for deconstructing and analysing text and co-constructing creative ‘literary’ texts with beginner learners of French (see Table 10.1).

Table 10.1 Activity domains, language functions and student outputs for creative literary writing in French

Aim: Writing a creative, evocative Gothic portrait and landscape description in French in response to reading and researching different texts
Activity Domains in French	Sample Activities in French	Cognitive Discourse Functions (CDFs) and Learner Progression in French	Student Outputs in French
Doing: Constructing creative written texts involving ‘scary, atmospheric’ stories using descriptions, emotions, sensory experiences, reporting activity CDF Describe Organising: Textual meaning-making, deconstructing and reconstructing textual features, refining the features and impact of texts through drafts CDFs Describe Classify Explore Explaining: Processes underpinning interpretation of texts CDFs Define Explain Report Arguing: Justifying what the most impactful features/meaning-making are. Are some features more impactful than others? How good are individual texts on impacting the reader (and his or her emotions)? CDFs Explore Evaluate	1. Reading and identifying key features of ‘specific genre’ of texts on landscape in Gothic literature 2. Observing and identifying landscape features through videos and geography resources 3. Researching – learners finding own texts (extracts) in L1 that they believe create a good story (i.e. ‘spooky moment’) 4. Small group discussions – follow-through activities focusing on specific features, such as connectives 1. Progressively in-depth deconstruction of key textual features in L2 for different landscape descriptions (pastoral, spooky) 2. Creating classification visuals by prioritising the most impactful/important text features (e.g. as in a Diamond Nine) 1. Analysing key textual features to evaluate earlier simple drafts 2. Increasing sophistication and emotional impact on reader concerning the senses (e.g. fear), using increasingly nuanced language 3. ’Playing’ with punctuation to create ambiance 4. Using grammatical features (such as tenses) to be creative, sensitive and strategic 5. Using similes and metaphors 6. Acting on feedback following video (‘Austin’s Butterfly’) as a trigger 1. Critically appraising the use of textual techniques – graphic descriptions versus the power of suggestion, subtleties, crescendo and the ‘unseen’ – assessing the impact of text 2. Critically evaluating language choices (e.g. verbs, senses, emotions, metaphors, similes) 3. Taking account of different reader perspectives and interpretation (e.g. responses to landscape paintings) and engaging in critical active readership	Novice Descriptors: I start my description with the two important objects I wish to describe: ‘il y a une maison et un arbre’ Expert Descriptors: I can add unusual vocabulary and focus on more than one sense. For example, ‘on remarque un arbre solitaire et mort et le hululement d’une chouette brise le silence de la nuit’ Novice Descriptors: I can identify linguistic features (e.g. adjectives) to make my text more impressive, link up my sentences with connectives, and use ‘qui’ sentences, as in ‘il y a une grande maison qui a l’air d’etre hantée’ Expert Descriptors: I include a variety of verbs to develop further, especially the use of the five senses: ‘on aperçoit une grande maison qui a l’air d’être hantée et on sent l’odeur du bois pourri’ Novice descriptors: I can structure my description more and improve my text by adding: ‘au premier plan, au deuxième plan, à droite, à gauche’, etc.: ‘Au premier plan on remarque un arbre solitaire et derrière l’arbre, au deuxième plan, il y a une grande maison qui fait peur.’ Expert descriptors: I can improve my text by adding similes and metaphors and changing the tense to tell my story in the past: ‘Au premier plan, à gauche, on remarquait un arbre solitaire et mort. Son tronc paraissait tordu comme les veines d’un cou qui montreraient sa douleur. Le hululement d’une chouette brisait le silence de la nuit.’ ‘Derrière l’arbre, au deuxième plan à l’est, on remarquait une maison qui avait l’air d’être hantée et on sentait l’odeur du bois pourri comme la mort.’ Novice Descriptors: I can make my description more interesting by structuring the text into paragraphs, making my sentences longer and using comparatives rather than adjectives I realise I have to structure my descriptions more and improve my text by adding au premier plan, au deuxième plan, à droite, à gauche: ‘Au premier plan on remarque un arbre solitaire comme un loup et derrière l’arbre, au deuxième plan, il y a une grande maison effrayante comme la mort’ Expert Descriptors: I can appeal more to my reader by using the language of the senses, emotion and powerful similes and metaphors: ‘Même si c’était évident que la maison était toute sombre, on pouvait toutefois apercevoir que la fenêtre en haut avait de la lumière, comme si le visiteur égaré était attendu … mais le cri strident qui perçait régulièrement le silence de la nuit avertissait que cet accueil n’avait rien d’hospitalier!’	Main: Creative, individual written text with built-in descriptions (people and landscapes) in a story with features of nineteenth-century Gothic literature Others include: • Responding to stimulus texts and video resources • Demonstrating genre awareness • Making bridges with other subjects, such as arts, geography and L1 literature Oral: • Reporting • Meaning-making • Discussion • Critical analysis Written: • Drafting/redrafting • Application of grammatical features • Sentence building • Using literacy features • Nuancing • Presentation • Analysis Digital: • Texts • Models • Text sharing • Feedback and feed-forward • Scaffolding videos • Task magic (text manipulation)

10.2 What is Deeper Learning in French Creative Literary Writing?

Deeper learning in the context of creative literary writing in French is not only about the construction of appropriately framed creative descriptive text (the Gothic landscape – Deeper Learning Episode 2); it is as much about the reading, ‘experiencing’ and drafting processes that demonstrate the development of specific literacy conventions, that is, using appropriate linguistic strategies to build and nuance textual meaning. It also enables those literary writing conventions (pertaining to creative literary text) to be reflected upon, analysed, practised, redrafted and improved so that they can be adapted to inform subsequent creative descriptions of different genres and registers (The Travelogue – Deeper Learning Episode 3) drawing on different modes of textual construction practices. Modelling is essential, and developing reading skills through ‘noticing’, text analysis and reflection constitutes the inclusive elements needed for deeper learning.

Deeper learning in French, therefore, involves guiding learners to transparently develop the strategies and skills for meaning construction needed to respond to and construct text creatively at an age-appropriate level. This is crucial for motivation and challenge, supported by scaffolding and mentoring learners to make explicit progressing towards textual fluency and demonstrating that this is not the reserve of advanced students of French but starts at the very beginning of language learning. Content relevance is, of course, key. For near-beginner learners in more traditional language learning settings, ‘content’ is used for language learning rather than as language learning – typically surface or transactional content, such as daily routines, house and home or hobbies. However, when learners become involved in discussing and co-selecting broad themes for analysis, they take on increasing responsibility to develop critical enquiry skills that enable them to carry out their own research according to group and individual interests. We know that expanding any of the typical themes to include alternative texts ranging from worldviews to local events requires raising consciousness and practices for integrating intercultural, creative, ecological and ethical perspectives. These have the potential to open up new knowledge pathways that are ‘owned’ by learners and relevant to their own interests and lives while providing bridges to other worlds – from the real to the imaginative, from the past to near futures.

Focusing on textual fluency shifts an emphasis on decontextualised grammatical structures to understanding how the language system relates to the genre, styles and purpose of text. It involves learners in verbal reasoning, languaging their learning and demonstrating their understanding as it evolves at different times and in different ways. Simply put, learners need to access the kind of language needed to engage in these tasks.

Progression for deeper learning involves

• practising and developing literary writing practices focusing on specific reading and writing strategies and skills

• increasing different knowledges (meaning construction, linguistic functions)

• engaging in discourse, connecting core ideas and principles to support interpretive analysis

• making appropriate choices of linguistic forms or functions to express meaning

• mentoring by teachers (and peers) to provide meaningful feedback and feed-forward.

Using the four activity domains to guide task design involves learners in doing, organising, explaining and arguing their interpretations and their compositions. Tasks focus on developing critical understanding of text meaning (knowledges) and text construction (linguistic strategies) as well as building increasing understanding of task-transparent CDFs. In other words, the responsibility for the choice of textual themes and related pluriliteracies practices goes way beyond more traditional language syllabuses and promotes contextually bound learner agency and interests. In turn, this enables more personalised learning pathways to emerge. It frames language learning as literacies using across languages (pluriliteracies) and as a significant cognitive contributor to educating young people. Redefining literature as language learning requires shifts in rethinking epistemologies and principles for classroom practice.

Table 10.2 provides us with a useful overview linking reading and writing literacy skills, emphasising critical thinking and what Sedita calls ‘writing craft’, indicating alternative questions teachers need to reflect upon in their learning design. It should be pointed out that the table uses first-language literacies skills development, which form a useful basis from which to connect with and develop further those literacy skills in other languages. For example, a focus on simple written descriptions is commonplace for younger learners in their first language. This typically involves understanding, responding to and writing very simple physical ‘descriptions’ of places (rooms and furniture) or people (hair and eye colour) using simple subject–verb–object phrases with a few ‘safe’ adjectives. Yet if these practices are replicated in the second or additional language several years later – in this case, French - the learners will have advanced several years in age, cognitive development and understanding the world, making the content simplistic and irrelevant. However, when ‘description’ in other languages becomes reframed within a pluriliteracies context, descriptions act as a gateway to creative interpretation of literature going way beyond, for example, describing people and their physical attributes. Instead, learners enter the world of personalities, emotions, behaviours and beliefs using more than one language. Similarly, interpretation of physical landscape and environments relating to historical and social trends, global conditions, poverty, economy, ethical analysis and so on, develops critical consciousness along the way. This is not about an ‘add-on’ text about citizenship education or cultural awareness. Instead, these are ways of being and behaving embedded in multimodal texts across languages, which are age- and content-relevant and openly invite comparison or transfer, where appropriate, from first to second languages and vice versa. These task-led experiences serve to raise learner awareness of ways in which languages work, expand knowledge pathways, raise cultural consciousness and provide deep practice that melds both language and meaning processes and deepens the knowledge domains outlined.

Table 10.2 Connecting Scarborough’s Reading Rope (2001) and Sedita’s Writing Rope (2019) with Hyland’s (Reference Hyland, Starke-Meyerring, Paré, Artemeva, Horne and Yousoubova2011) knowledge domains for L1 literacies and Coyle and Meyer (Reference Coyle and Meyer2021) L2 literacies

10.3 Example of a Deeper Learning Episode

As stated in Section 10.2, in this chapter reference is made to three sequential DLEs, which together comprise one overarching year-long goal: for beginner learners to develop deeper understanding and practices of the processes and skills needed to become creative literary writers in French.

The sequence of episodes is designed to move learners from surface learning to opening minds by connecting cognitive–cultural knowledges to language and literary genre-based knowledges in order to promote the development of the academic literacies required for composing written descriptions. To do this, learners are encouraged to progressively explore a range of opportunities to integrate and deepen all core knowledge domains over time, a process that underpins the episodes. Table 10.3 sets out a design plan that summarises how learners move from simple to increasingly complex descriptions in French, raising cultural consciousness and culminating in creating alternative travel diaries (Deeper Learning Episode 3).

Deeper Learning Episode 1, illustrated in Table 10.4 is the first in the series and occurs in the early stages of literary descriptive writing. The aim is to encourage creativity in learners, raising their expectations by starting with simple ideas for describing physical attributes of people to guiding them along pathways leading to literary portraits conveying characteristics, personalities, emotions and behaviours. Moving towards ‘deeper meaning’ involves a series of tasks encouraging learners to gain confidence, take risks, learn genre-related linguistic features, play with words and explore new ways of working with languages at an age-appropriate level. The processes involved in creative writing from this perspective are not part of the regular language learning curriculum. Deeper Learning Episode 1 is entitled ‘Tout sur Moi – All about Me!’

10.4 Alignment

Designing DLEs involves aligning creative writing literacies, knowledge pathways, and learner and teacher ‘learning behaviours’ with learner needs and interests. Making this alignment transparent for learners and teachers alike is crucial to understanding the effectiveness of adopting a pluriliteracies approach. Moreover, the creative student-directed nature of the work means that while the five knowledge domains provide a solid framework and the broad themes of content knowledge are designed by the teacher, the detail and direction of the content of the learning through activity domains is dynamic, underpinned by the scaffolded development of literary written texts – in this example focusing on creative literary descriptions.

10.5 How Do Learners Move from Surface Learning to Consolidation?

Moving from surface learning to consolidation is dynamic and challenging, requiring learners to deepen their textual and linguistic fluency, supported by scaffolding progression, task guidance and mentoring. As pathways develop in differentiated and individual ways, task design and text choice become increasingly important, especially if learners are to be encouraged to take on responsibility for progressing and deepening their own learning. Using the knowledge domains to make explicit different types of practice tasks that focus, for example, on raising cultural consciousness, deepening content knowledges or developing genre-appropriate discourse demands not only reconceptualising how tasks are designed and evaluated in the languages classroom but also the involvement of learners in those processes. Creating supportive opportunities for learners to demonstrate, explain and evaluate their own learning requires specific attention in the following areas.

Promote/Acquire Basic Understanding and Acquisition of Foundational Skills

Learners are guided through recurrent modelling of a range of literary multimodal descriptions, from factual to evocative, demonstrating their use of the protocols for creative text construction. Tasks require learners to ‘notice’ appropriate discourse rules in French through reading. Tasks also encourage learners to be confident ‘owners’ of the language they use and express meanings in ways they want. These processes are fundamental for text production. They require scaffolding learners’ reading, drafting and redrafting as they develop deeper awareness of how to construct text according to disciplinary (literacy) strategies and conventions that constantly improve a previous draft (see Figure 10.1). Changing contextual stimulus encourages creativity, ranging from descriptions of robots and landscapes to Gothic characters and contemporary workers in global settings – that is, from physical description to fictional characters who influence their environment (see Deeper Learning Episode 3 – The Travelogue). The starting point might be an image with the question ‘What do you see?’. Early responses involve simple description – ‘Il y a une maison et il y a un arbre’; these are improved through building on textual structures and delving into ‘writing craft’ via manipulating, exploring and drafting to transform descriptions into composed (not cut and pasted) text. Teacher modelling of the use of literary and literacy strategies means that near-beginner learners can transform their early description into ‘Gustav se tenait en face d’une grande voûte gothique c’était interminable. Un point sur la gauche il y avait un escalier central sur le dessus de l’escalier. Il y avait un portrait de la femme qui avait sept fils’.

Figure 10.1 Classroom clips synthesising progression in descriptive writing

Language practice builds learner confidence; classroom discussion is expected, and learners are constantly required to talk about their learning, increasingly using the target language to express meaning as disciplinary protocols and practices become normalised.

Facilitate/Acquire Deeper Understanding and Deep Practice

Modelling texts with and for learners draws on extracts from multimodal descriptive texts of Gothic landscapes. This immerses learners in language-rich experiences; opens minds about the power of words (reading and meaning-making); deepens understanding though expanding new ideas in creative ways; uses imagination; interconnects the local and the global; and enables the development of strategies for noticing, drafting and dealing with longer written or creative multimodal and increasingly complex text. Deep practice involves learners in the systematic and conscious analysis of different styles of descriptive text, expanding lexical families and using CDFs in order to build increasingly creative yet appropriately written descriptions. It also involves learners in practising the written language in a range of contexts. The description in Figure 10.2 was constructed and written by a near-beginner learner. Tasks require learners to demonstrate their understanding of their written product, drawing on elements of the knowledge domains – arguing, talking about the construction process and decisions made – to guard against ‘cut and paste’ or ‘Google Translate’ solutions.

Figure 10.2 Final draft of creative writing description by novice learner

10.6 The Progression Pathways for the Three Deeper Learning Episodes: Creative Literary Descriptions in French

In this section, the progression of the three deeper learning episodes is laid out. Table 10.7 describes the first stage, which explores physical and personal descriptions.

The second stage (Table 10.8) looks into subject-specific literacy and the necessary scaffolding to give learners access to a high cognitive content.

The third stage (Table 10.9) explores ways to make deeper learning more frequent, authentic and transferable to different contexts or subjects.

The final stage gives learners more time and greater opportunities to reflect on their learning, not with the usual ‘in this unit, I have learned …, I need to improve on …’, but rather to introduce new, more visible thinking routines. Simultaneously, we, as teachers, have to reconsider how we give feedback to our students and see if we could provide comments and strategies that enhance true learning and progression (see Table 10.6).

10.7 Conclusion and Outlook

The DLEs in this chapter are built on principles, ideas, guides and encouragement to reconceptualise language learning as an emergent subject discipline. This means finding ways of offering learners a solid knowledge base as well as a linguistic base that is cognitively challenging, linguistically purposeful, learner-centred and relevant. In other words, creating with learners a means of deepening their critical understanding of life experiences and the world at an age-appropriate level while increasing their understanding of the ways in which languages and literacies are needed to make meaning. Identifying reading and writing as a conduit for learning fits with Manchón’s view that ‘the exploration of writing as a site for language learning is a newcomer to the fields of second language acquisition (SLA) and second language (L2) writing’ (Reference Coyle and Meyer2021, p. 1). Adopting a pluriliteracies approach requires a shift in teacher mindset and a shift in learning design. In particular, the need to develop textual fluency as well as linguistic fluency makes sense. The outcomes of the student learning so far suggest that levels of attainment in French writing are well in advance of what would be expected in the regular language classroom – some learners have reached an unprecedented B1 level for writing as near beginners. In other words, creative literary writing offers ways of substantially increasing the knowledge and language skills base required to read and compose creative literary text in French through focusing on specific elements of literacies and pluriliteracies.

This series of DLEs has foregrounded developing description as a conduit for learning and a means for benchmarking progression.

In addition to Manchón’s claim, another crucial implication is that of developing a serious content and cultural knowledge base that usefully comes together in Hyland’s (Reference Hyland, Starke-Meyerring, Paré, Artemeva, Horne and Yousoubova2011) five knowledge domains. There is a great deal more work to be done with colleagues and researchers, and it is essential to stress that this is an ongoing process, full of trials and errors and that, along the way, some compromises have to be made. There are tensions. For example, the sole use of the target language is brought into question – transforming classroom practices suggests that translanguaging is more likely to grow a positive environment where deeper learning thrives – especially with near-beginner learners, as in this case. A language teacher must be willing to endorse the role of being and behaving as a deeper learning coach or mentor while addressing the demands of a language national curriculum. Most importantly, in the design of DLEs teachers should be prepared to take risks, to question traditional practices, to accept that not everything works for students and to keep working at it – we know it is going in the right direction when our learners say so.

11.1 Competences and Literacy in Religious Education

Religious Education (RE) in European countries varies significantly in terms of organisational form, content and educational goals and does so even more worldwide (Rothgangel, Danilovich & Jäggle, Reference Rothgangel, Danilovich and Jäggle2014–2020). Despite the partially substantial differences, we can nevertheless assert for many of these concepts that they concordantly focus the task of RE on the learnable ability to deal reflectively with religion as it occurs (or may occur) in one’s personal life and in society. In most fundamental terms, RE thus pursues the goal of enabling students to think and act responsibly in matters of religion, in particular by providing structured and life-relevant basic knowledge, exploring forms of lived religion and developing the ability to engage in inter-religious or worldview dialogues (Altmeyer, Reference Altmeyer, Engebretson, de Souza, Durka and Gearon2010; Meyer, Reference Meyer and Philip Barnes2021). Hence, the basic concern is to enable learners to gain reflexive and relevant orientational knowledge from contact with religious traditions. How far this reflective approach extends and of what it exactly consists, can – depending on context – be interpreted in very different ways (Hannam et al., Reference Hannam, Biesta, Whittle and Aldridge2020): from a ‘neutral’ comparative understanding of religions or a ‘critical’ evaluation of religious claims to a ‘positional’ empowerment of individual decisions and identity development regarding religion.

With each different approach to RE, the concept of what deeper learning means necessarily differs as well. In this chapter, we would like to proceed from an understanding that is primarily related to the German school context but also shares a high degree of connectivity with many other contexts. From our point of view, deeper learning can be defined as the process of ‘bringing religion and lifeworld or religious traditions and current experiences into a lively dialogue with each other’ (Englert, Hennecke & Kämmerling, Reference Englert, Hennecke and Kämmerling2014, p. 12, own translation). On this basis, deepening can be modelled in terms of the level reached at both critically and productively, linking elementary content structures and elementary lifeworld perspectives (see Section 11.2). Competences to be acquired in RE therefore refer to cognitive abilities and skills in dealing with religion in its various dimensions (experience, cognition, practice, ethics) as well as to the motivational and volitional capacity to relate these productively and critically to questions of lifeworld orientation and to arrive at a reflected judgement. In other words, competence in RE refers to students’ ability ‘to evaluate their understanding of religion in personal terms and to evaluate their understanding of self in religious terms’ (Miedema, Reference Miedema and Heimbrock2017, p.133). Consequently, learning processes in RE go hand in hand with two fundamental deepening movements: a constant change of perspective (learning about/from religion) as well as an associated continuous, student-oriented evaluation of the relevance of what has been learned.

In this context, deeper learning in RE possesses a basic linguistic dimension and goes hand in hand with the development of religious literacy since subject and language learning are inseparably linked. To promote deeper learning, not only the subject language of ‘religion’ must be acquired but at the same time the ability to communicate the gained knowledge and procedures appropriately in a personally meaningful way (Coyle & Meyer, Reference Coyle and Meyer2021; Meyer et al., Reference Meyer, Coyle, Imhof, Connolly and Martínez Agudo2018). The corresponding didactic question of how to teach the linguistic skills corresponding to content and lifeworld structures can be clarified with the help of the following model (Table 11.1; Altmeyer, Reference Altmeyer2021b).

The model suggests thinking of literacy in RE in a two-dimensional manner, with two basic distinctions being crucial. The first lies between ‘religious language’ and ‘language of religion’ and reflects the insight that religion can become the topic of learning in a subjectivising or an objectivising approach, meaning by investigating personal religious orientations (religiosity) or materialised religion (religious tradition). Being able to switch between the two perspectives and to draw relations between them coincides with person-centred goals in RE and the corresponding question of relevance construction mentioned above. The second distinction looks at the speaker’s positioning in relation to religion and distinguishes along an inside/outside line between ‘talking religiously’ and ‘talking about religion’. Being able to distinguish between these two poles and change perspectives entails the competence of critical reflection upon the positionings inherent in different linguistic approaches to religion.

Insofar as RE in general pursues the goal of enabling students to deal with religion in a responsible and mature manner, four inter-connected literacy tasks arise, namely that learning in RE intends to open up elementary forms of religious traditions (‘language of religion’), to deal with personal forms of religious expression (‘religious language’), to address the question of life-relevant orientation through religion (‘talking religiously’) and to promote religious judgement and dialogue (‘talking about religion’). The model overview shows in detail which linguistic competence expectations are associated with this (italics in Table 11.1) and which approach of didactic modelling they correspond to (terms in brackets in Table 11.1).

11.2 Deeper Learning in Religious Education

As already formulated above, we want to connect deeper learning in RE with the subject-specific question: at which level does a lively dialogue between the lifeworld perspective on religion and the acquisition of exemplary knowledge about religion take place? In German RE research, this is classically referred to as the so-called correlative or dialogical principle of religious learning (Englert, Hennecke & Kämmerling, Reference Englert, Hennecke and Kämmerling2014; Roebben, Reference Roebben2021). This principle states that religious knowledge should always be developed in dialogue with the questions, experiences and convictions of the students and therefore through personal communication. What follows from that central concern of religious learning is that RE must develop both cognitive academic language proficiency and basic interpersonal communicative skills (Cummins, Reference Cummins2000). Unlike in other subjects, the linguistic learning progress in RE can therefore not be focused solely on the development of academic language competences. On the contrary, competences in ordinary language for personal communication remain of fundamental, irreplaceable importance in RE (Altmeyer, Reference Altmeyer, Altmeyer, Grümme, Kohler-Spiegel, Naurath, Schröder and Schweitzer2019).

Connecting general deeper learning strategies (see Part I) with specific competences in religious learning processes and corresponding basic modes of didactic modelling (see Table 11.1), we want to distinguish four levels of deeper learning in RE as follows.

1. 1. Basic knowledge about religion. At this level, the focus lies on basic understanding and foundational skills related to a particular topic of RE. According to ‘explaining religion’ (Englert, Hennecke & Kämmerling, Reference Englert, Hennecke and Kämmerling2014, pp. 59–60), it is about understanding a religious phenomenon and being able to approach and articulate it appropriately.

2. 2. Elementary religious knowledge from original encounters with religion. A first step into deeper understanding can be achieved where learning about religion turns into learning from religion – that is, where authentic religious tradition is explored in the mode of ‘experiencing religion’ (Englert, Hennecke & Kämmerling, Reference Englert, Hennecke and Kämmerling2014, p. 61) through different media or personal encounter and examined in a student-centred way.

3. 3. Applied religious knowledge with a focus on actuality. The level of deep understanding can be reached when religious knowledge is questioned for its relevance to the present. This is ‘arguing religion’ (Englert, Hennecke & Kämmerling, 2014, p. 60): obstacles of religious traditions, claims and convictions, as well as their potential problem-solving capacity, are critically examined and insights communicated.

4. 4. Deepened religious knowledge with completed construction of relevance. The fourth level, related to transfer, focuses on the level of an individual evaluation and, if appropriate, positioning (Heimbrock, Reference Heimbrock2017). The question of relevance is not only posed abstractly but, in the sense of ‘exploring religion’ (Englert, Hennecke & Kämmerling, Reference Englert, Hennecke and Kämmerling2014, pp. 58–59), it is brought into connection with one’s own personal convictions, whereby this personal construction of relevance and its articulation is intended to be made possible by the teachers but is in no way to be influenced or directed or predefined by them.

We want to briefly illustrate this understanding of deeper learning levels by means of a classical topic of (Christian) RE, choosing the example of prophets. Basic knowledge about religion can be found in questions such as: What is understood by a prophet in biblical tradition, other religions, or history? Which central prophetic figures do we know? Which concerns can be linked to their messages? When students get to know a specific prophet in more detail, in the various facets of his or her life, the historical setting, the tradition of his or her calling, or examples of his or her message and history of influence, elementary religious knowledge from original encounter with religion comes into play. Applied religious knowledge with a focus on actuality can be introduced, for example, by formulating question such as Are prophets only a phenomenon of the past and of religious traditions or might there be present day prophets as well? Or Where might women and men be needed to perform in a prophetic sense?

Finally, the level of a deepened religious knowledge with completed construction of relevance can be achieved through questions like this: If I were allowed to give a speech to humanity right now, what would I say? Through such a task, prophets are no longer merely spoken about in a detached way, but a prophetic role is directly taken on in a playful and experimental way, which challenges deeper cognitive, emotional and action-oriented experiences and insights from an inner perspective (Altmeyer, Reference Altmeyer, Buchanan and Gellel2015).

The example may already clarify how deeper learning might be realised in RE and how it can be didactically modelled, but it also points out that the four levels mentioned need by no means be interpreted in the sense of a linear sequence. A specific teaching project on prophets could certainly start with a very challenging task like the one mentioned above (writing a speech to humanity). In that case, fundamental religious knowledge about prophets might be acquired at a later stage of the project. The crucial point of deeper learning in RE is not when and in which order a certain depth of learning is reached, but that there exists the conscious intention of the teacher to create opportunities for learners to touch all of the four levels of deeper learning in the course of a specific learning episode.

11.3 A Model Deeper Learning Episode in Religious Education

With our model episode (see Table 11.2), we pick up on a current and overarching topic that we piloted in project teaching. The project was developed in cooperation with the Public Climate School, a Germany-wide initiative of the ‘students for future’ movement, which aims to raise cross-disciplinary awareness of the climate crisis in schools and offers alternative teaching activities as part of an annual campaign week (https://publicclimateschool.de/). In this context, our learning episode for RE was developed for upper-secondary students in years 10-13 and implemented in May 2021. It centred on an inter-religious panel discussion with experts from Buddhism, Judaism, Islam and Christianity, which was centrally hosted and recorded and provided students with interactive opportunities for participation. Teachers across Germany were able to participate with their RE classes as the panel discussion was available via a streaming service and the lesson planning and teaching materials were accessible online.

Thematically, the learning episode focuses on the question of what contribution the four world religions can collectively make to promote climate justice (Altmeyer, Reference Altmeyer2021a; Grelle, Reference Grelle, Astley, Francis and Lankshear2018; Tomlinson, Reference Tomlinson2019). The topic is particularly suitable for deeper learning in RE as it is highly relevant both from the students’ point of view and in terms of subject matter. After all, there is no doubt that climate change is one of the epochal challenges of our day. What a decade ago might have been seen as one political issue among many, or as the concern of a few environmental activists, has now become a key social and global issue, the urgency of which is being pointed out not least by the younger generation with clarity and insistence. Some scholars even argue that climate change is perhaps even the religious issue of our day since it fundamentally concerns the relationship between humans and the natural order, as well as the question of responsibility for global justice, the future and humanity (Gardner, Reference Gardner2006; Jenkins, Berry & Kreider, Reference Jenkins, Berry and Kreider2018; Tomalin, Haustein & Kidy, Reference Tomalin, Haustein and Kidy2019). Insofar as corresponding cosmological, anthropological and ethical questions belong to the core of all religious traditions, the question arises whether these traditions can also make a substantial contribution to solving the climate crisis at present. Consequently, the thematic focus lies on the field of environmental ethics, and an inter-religious learning approach has been chosen that fits into the global goals of education for sustainable development. Major goals of the learning episode can be located within the competence spectrum of the Orientation Framework for Global Development (Ständige Konferenz der Kultusminister der Länder in der Bundesrepublik Deutschland, Bundesministerium für wirtschaftliche Zusammenarbeit und Entwicklung, & Engagement Global, 2016, pp. 272–284) and specified for religious learning as follows:

• Recognising diversity: Students will be able to recognise natural and socio-cultural diversity and name different religious approaches to sustainable development.

• Change of perspective and empathy: Students can become aware of, appreciate and reflect on their own and other people’s religious orientations in terms of their significance for a sustainable way of life and social order.

• Solidarity and co-responsibility: Students can identify areas of personal co-responsibility for people and the environment and review and develop their own basic orientation in dialogue with others.

The structure of the learning episode can be roughly divided into three sections: a motivating introduction to the topic (approx. 20 minutes), the inter-religious panel discussion, during which the students work on targeted observation tasks and can also participate interactively (approx. 45 minutes), and a concluding consolidation phase (approx. 30 minutes). Optionally, additional material was provided for further work in class after the learning episode.

In the motivating introduction, the aim is to enable the students to personally connect to the problem. For this purpose, a visual impulse is given by means of a picture collage (see Material No. 2) and discussed with the students with regard to which thoughts and/or emotions the pictures trigger in them, which connections they perceive and where they would finally position themselves. In a second step, the collage is expanded to include a reference to religions so that, for the first time, the world’s religions become the focus of the question about climate protection. This gives the students the opportunity to activate and express pre-conceptions and pre-experiences about the relationship between religion and the climate crisis or climate protection.

Phase 1 is followed by the inter-religious panel discussion, which is streamed into the classroom. In this panel, four people from the world’s major religions discuss the question of motivation, opportunities, and specific examples of why and how their religion is committed to climate protection and how the religions can work together to become an important voice in sustainability transitions. Students observe the discussion in groups of four (see Material No. 4), with each student being responsible to follow one person on the panel more closely, given the following scenario for observation: ‘Imagine you are reporting on Twitter about your participation in the panel discussion. To do this, you want to capture the key statements of a discussant in short and concise sentences’. Accordingly, the task is given to write three tweets during the panel discussion: why climate concern is important to the respective religion, which examples for engagement the person names, and what his or her most important statement is. In a group of four students, all four panellists are observed in this way. In addition to the observation tasks, there are several opportunities to interact with the panel through digital media channels.

After the panel discussion, the in-depth phase begins with group work in which the groups of four engage in conversation about their observations, for which they are provided with targeted tasks. First, they might talk about what was important to the people on the podium and what, if any, differences there were. Then the group is asked to write a joint tweet about what views the discussants have in common. Afterwards, a very critical tweet is to be discussed and answered, in which a fictitious user expresses the opinion that religions always lead to conflicts and war and will therefore never find a common solution against climate change. In the final step of the consolidation phase, which returns to the plenary, the teacher asks some students to present their group tweets, which can be briefly commented on or discussed. The episode ends with a short concluding question about how the students now evaluate a possible contribution of religions to a more climate-just world.

For further work following the learning episode, a second, closer look at the group’s tweets is important, in which the individual results are discussed and advice is given for further development. For this follow-up work, three additional material suggestions are available (see Material No. 6). Two of them include an explanatory video and corresponding tasks. The topics are Christian environmental ethics and a biblical theology of creation. A third suggestion leads to an online response tool that deals with an everyday ecological dilemma (Altmeyer & Dreesmann, Reference Altmeyer and Dreesmann2020; Reference Altmeyer and Dreesmann2021) and the question of how one would act in this situation and for what reasons. This way, students can learn more about their attitudes towards climate protection in everyday life and discuss the question which (potentially religious) orientation is important for them personally.

Public Climate School on Climate and Religion (Years 10-13)

11.4 Alignment of the Deeper Learning Episode

In the following discussion, we aim to demonstrate how the model learning episode is intended to facilitate deeper learning related to religion. We will first analyse this didactically with regard to the suggested learning path and then elaborate on teacher and student activities.

11.5 How Do Learners Move from Surface Learning to Consolidation to the Transfer Stage?

To show how our didactic modelling affects the practice dimension of teacher and student activity, we refer to the elements of a deeper learning episode as described in Part I, Figure 4.1.

11.6 Conclusion and Outlook

At the end of this attempt to relate the concept of deeper learning to RE and to develop a model learning episode, there stands a straightforward conclusion. Subject and language learning are to be regarded as deeply intertwined in the field of religious learning as well, so that the goals and processes of religious learning can be fruitfully reformulated and specified within the framework of deeper learning. In RE, too, the conditions, goals, objects and communicative forms of teaching are to be questioned with regard to inherent language requirements, and the students are to be offered targeted support according to their literacy skills. When planning deeper learning processes in religion, teachers must also take into account the (linguistic) pre-conditions of the learners and reflect on the language of teaching; they must integrate linguistic requirements into planning and design, support transitions between everyday and academic communication and create a variety of occasions for linguistic action. In this regard, the planning grid (see Table 11.2) for deeper learning episodes serves as a helpful tool. When implementing the planning grid, the teacher is confronted with a twofold task: first, to plan a deeper learning path didactically, taking into account the levels of subject-specific deepening and didactic modelling typical for religious learning, and second, to translate these into appropriate teacher and student action. If this is successful, RE in the deeper learning framework can develop its very specific literacy profile, which envisions itself in teaching language skills that really serve all students to achieve religious maturity and to develop a healthy personality.

11.7 Learning Materials

Section 3: Consolidation

Worksheet 11.1Observation of the Panel Discussion

Worksheet 11.2In-Depth Group Work after the Panel Discussion

Worksheet 11.3Follow-Up Tasks to Continue after the Learning Episode (Transfer Task)

12.1 Introduction

In every school subject, acquiring skills and knowledge is strongly linked to the development of the learners’ general and subject-specific language skills. This is also the case for the aesthetic subjects, be it the arts, music or drama. Although artistic practice often relies on non-verbal communication and interaction, all kinds of artistic practice, especially in educational contexts, are also linked to language production and reflection: artistic practice and products can be described, evaluated and reflected on; creative processes in all stages need inter- and intrapersonal reflection; and subject-specific genres, such as the analysis of musical pieces or aesthetic argumentation, highly rely on the availability of subject-specific knowledge and language. Often, however, too little attention is paid to the close integration of subject learning and language acquisition in the arts subjects (Bossen, Reference Bossen2019). While the music curricula specify that students should learn the technical terms of the subject, the question of how these terms should be used in specific discourses or genres often remains open. However, the competent use of subject-specific language in school and, finally, in everyday communication is very important to promoting participation in musical culture, even beyond a student’s school career.

Just as people dance differently to different types of music, they also talk about them differently as this is part of a specific habitus connected to specific cultural phenomena. Consequently, music teaching and learning should be complemented by opportunities for language learning and reflection that decipher codes and symbols connected to specific musical practices and genres. However, language learning should in no way override the acquisition of subject-specific skills. Rather, it can be argued that language is a central element of culture and cultural capital because language transmits culture and is therefore an indispensable tool that facilitates students’ ability to access every musical practice (Weininger & Lareau, Reference Weininger, Lareau, Medvetz and Sallaz2018).

With this in mind, it is also important to consider aspects of educational inequality. A student’s academic language acquisition is highly dependent on the cultural capital and educational background of his or her family. As a result, major differences can be seen between the academic and everyday registers of students across social classes, which can be misrecognised as a gift or talent in more privileged students (Weininger & Lareau, Reference Weininger, Lareau, Medvetz and Sallaz2018). In music, this has particular weight since social standing determines to a large degree one’s ability to access the subject matter. For example, classical music is particularly distinctive and might only be accessible to a relatively small number of people. However, it is this kind of music that represents a central component of music education, which means less privileged students enter the music classroom at a disadvantage.

In order to address this language problem in the music classroom, teachers can use the pluriliteracies teaching for deeper learning (PTDL) model (Coyle & Meyer, Reference Coyle and Meyer2021), which offers ways of integrating content and language learning through a distinct focus on the development of subject literacies for deeper learning. In this chapter, I seek to apply the approach to the context of music education and give an example of what a deeper learning episode, as proposed by Coyle & Meyer (Reference Coyle and Meyer2021) could look like.

12.2 Musical Competence and Musical Literacy

While musical participation and musical agency can be seen as the overarching goals of all music education, a plurality of goals exist that can guide music educational efforts in the classroom (Kranefeld, Reference Kranefeld2021; Krupp, Reference Krupp2021). The reason for this is the variety of pedagogic approaches to teaching music that have emerged since the 1970s (Kranefeld, Reference Kranefeld2021). Whereas earlier approaches focused on the analysis and interpretation of classical music, today’s focus is rather on the exploration of a variety of musical–cultural practices as well as on the students’ own music-making (Jank, Reference Jank2021). Music education, from a constructive perspective, can be seen as musical meaning-making through processes of intra- and interpersonal negotiation and reflection (Krause-Benz, Reference Krause-Benz2014), related to the acquisition of subject-specific knowledge, skills and methods. Doing, organising, explaining and arguing music are key components of the learning process and rely not only on subject-specific knowledge (i.e. music history, music theory, musical genres) but also on general linguistic skills, the proper use of genres and registers and the ability to understand and use technical terms (Bossen, Reference Bossen2019).

In recent years, competency models that describe different dimensions of overall musical competence have been developed and empirically validated in the context of German music education research. Those dimensions refer to (1) perceiving and understanding music (Jordan, Reference Jordan2014; Jordan et al., Reference Jordan, Knigge, Lehmann, Niessen and Lehmann-Wermser2012; Knigge, Reference Knigge2010); (2) practical musical competences (singing, rhythm production, playing an instrument [Hasselhorn, Reference Hasselhorn2015]); and (3) argumentation competence (Ehninger, Knigge & Rolle, Reference Ehinger, Knigge, Rolle, Budke and Schäbitz2021; Knörzer et al., Reference Knörzer, Rolle, Stark, Park, Niessen and Knigge2015; Rolle, Reference Rolle, de Vugt and Malmberg2013)Footnote ¹. It is quite obvious that perceiving and describing music as well as arguing about music are highly interrelated with adequate use of language, not only with respect to technical terms but also with respect to genre conventions, style (i.e. scientific or colloquial) and mode (oral or written). Aesthetic discourses like these provide a challenge since they involve subjective perceptions and preferences as well as their justifications and thus leave the realm of objective assessment.

However, the linguistic requirements needed to exercise these competences are addressed rather implicitly, and the question of how they can be promoted is only discussed at the content level, not at the linguistic level. And yet, all models assume that the students have acquired a certain level of academic language literacy. The approaches modelling aesthetic argumentation competence that have been developed (Ehninger, Knigge & Rolle, Reference Ehinger, Knigge, Rolle, Budke and Schäbitz2021; Gottschalk & Lehmann-Wermser, Reference Gottschalk, Lehmann-Wermser, Komorek and Prediger2013; Major, Reference Major2007; Major & Cottle, Reference Major and Cottle2010) are restricted to certain age groups.

Although Bossen (Reference Bossen2019) emphasises the relevance of language teaching and learning in the music classroom, the concept of music literacy has hardly been elaborated on. Based on a general definition of cultural literacy as ‘being competent in a number of […] modes of discourse – verbal and nonverbal’, Levinson (Reference Levinson1990) describes a narrow concept of music literacy that refers to ‘all sorts of factual information about music that a common reader is expected to possess and which enable him or her to understand discourse which takes music or musicians as its subject’ (p. 18). This definition is, in fact, too narrow as it solely focuses on the understanding of music based on theoretical music knowledge while neglecting all forms of active communication and interaction occurring during musical practice.

The pluriliteracies approach defines subject literacy in a wider sense as the ability not only to participate successfully in increasingly complex subject discourse but also to communicate acquired subject knowledge adequately across cultural and linguistic boundaries. Citing Beacco et al., Coyle and Meyer (Reference Coyle and Meyer2021) interpret this process as a ‘path towards critical thinking and knowledge application as well as towards social participation’ (p. 40). Understood in this wider sense, music literacy encompasses all other aspects of musical competence and refers to the students’ ability to use adequate language and expression across different subject-specific genres and communication contexts (e.g. music analysis, recensions, aesthetic argument, comments on music or music explanations), requiring specific modes and styles of communication. Music literacy becomes visible in the growing ability to successfully navigate the four activity domains that PTDL promotes (i.e. doing, organising, explaining and arguing music). It doesn’t develop automatically but rather progressively over time (see Shanahan & Shanahan, Reference Shanahan and Shanahan2008, cited in Coyle & Meyer, Reference Coyle and Meyer2021).

To some degree, most pupils already have some degree of music literacy as they spend time discussing their music (e.g. favourite artists or favourite songs) among their peers. It can be taken for granted that colloquial communication about music plays a major role in their social activities. The task of music education is, then, not only to appreciate the multiple ways in which young learners already do communicate about music but to also bring their music literacy to a higher level by teaching them to decipher and encode specific cultural codes that may be hidden to learners in communication about music. Integrating the development of musical competence and musical literacy in this way would also contribute to inclusion and social equality (Coyle & Meyer, Reference Coyle and Meyer2021; Weininger & Lareau, Reference Weininger, Lareau, Medvetz and Sallaz2018).

12.3 Deeper Learning in Music

Pluriliteracies teaching defines deeper learning as ‘the successful internalization of conceptual content knowledge and the automatization of subject-specific procedures, skills and strategies.’ (Meyer & Coyle, Reference Meyer and Coyle2017, p. 1). It includes ‘the ability to adequately communicate and negotiate knowledge, as well as the ability to apply knowledge and skills not only in different subject contexts but also to real world issues’ (Coyle & Meyer, Reference Coyle and Meyer2021, p. 40). Deeper learning finally becomes visible, among other things, through the learners’ subject-specific literacy performance. The approach ‘aims to facilitate deeper learning through an explicit focus on disciplinary literacies. […] This will encourage successful communication across cultures’ (p. 41).

The concept of deeper learning as such is not directly present in current music education discourse. Nevertheless, there are approaches and concepts to music teaching and learning, designed around key assumptions similar to those of PTDL, that promote constructive approaches to learning, the importance of meaning-making (Krause, Reference Krause2008; Krause-Benz, Reference Krause-Benz2014), problem solving (Dreßler, Reference Dreßler and Dreßler2016), cognitive activation (Gebauer, 2013) and the development of different areas of musical competence. The shared assumption is that learning takes place through participation in learning activities that require different forms of engagement (i.e. cognitive, aesthetic, emotional and social). Within those activities, meaning-making plays a crucial role and is closely linked to broader, overarching educational goals, especially against the background of a transformational understanding of education that is central to the aesthetic subjects: Bildung takes place when a subject’s self- and world-relations undergo fundamental changes (Biesta, Reference Biesta2012; Krause, Reference Krause2008; Rolle, Reference Rolle and Schäfer-Lembeck2011). This includes the development of musical competences as well as a critical reflection of culturally situated practices and how they are ‘mediated by language and other symbolic systems embedded in cultural contexts’ (Coyle & Meyer, Reference Coyle and Meyer2021, p. 158)

12.4 A Model Deeper Learning Episode in Music: Why Does Everybody Sing ‘The Wellerman’?

In December 2020, a Scottish postman named Nathan Evans shared his version of the 150-year-old sea shanty ‘The Wellerman’ on TikTok. Within a very short time, the video went viral and got thousands of views, likes and comments, as well as thousands of remakes and remixes: duets, choirs, text adaptations, dances, instrumental versions and parodies. There is an endless number of videos that can be found, and many people got involved. Everybody was singing ‘The Wellerman’. But why did this short video become such a success? This is what students are supposed to figure out in the presented model episode (see Tables 12.1, 12.2 and 12.3). Specifically, the episode requires students to research the shanty genre, analyse user comments on the piece and compose their own comments. More generally, the episode is about classifying musical and social media phenomena and developing a critical perspective on them. Consequently, the episode could also be used with or extended to other prominent music examples.

This episode doesn’t require students to perform their own rendition of the shantyFootnote ². In contrast, it aims at promoting meaningful and critical inquiry of a musical piece as well as its social and cultural meaning and context. Only playing the music without going further might be fun and promote musical playing skills but would also mean squandering an opportunity for deeper learning with respect to the content and context of the musical phenomenon under question.

12.5 Alignment of Deeper Learning Episode

In the case of this episode, high task fidelity (Coyle & Meyer, Reference Coyle and Meyer2021) is achieved for several reasons: the personal and practical relevance of the project is very high as a musical phenomenon in a widely used social media platform is at the centre of the activities. Research on the topic (shanty as a genre) is combined with digital modes of presentation and oral and written production of text. Working with comments on music videos (analysing and writing) develops music literacy in the domain of aesthetic argumentation, including an increasing awareness of context-specific language styles and register. By doing so, knowledge about the shanty genre is constructed and critical reflection on an actual phenomenon is accomplished.

Assessment

There is hardly any empirical evidence on reliable assessment of musical competence or musical literacy as defined above. The assessment of oral or written statements on music is generally based on criteria derived from the three cognitive discourse functions. A good example of this can be found in the music subject curriculum of the state of Baden-Württemberg. Here, operators are defined specifically for music and can be used as a basis for evaluation. Those operators are specified linguistically with respect to content typical of the subject of music (Ministerium für Kultus, Jugend und Sport Baden-Württemberg, 2016, p. 33 ff).

A general model for music literacy as defined in this chapter has not been developed so far. Consequently, the assessment grid for this episode (see Table 12.4) is aligned with linguistic specifications that can be found in the school curricula. It focuses on the requirements arising from the tasks and can be used flexibly or adapted to specific ages depending on the module selection. The levels are specified for Grade 8/9 for the following criteria.

• Describe: Engage with a musical phenomenon and describe it using technical language terms.

• Explain: Put a phenomenon into context using musical terminology and pointing out backgrounds and causes.

• Evaluate: Evaluate a musical product on the basis of self-selected formal, aesthetic and creative criteria.

• Discuss: Discuss the quality of a musical product and reflect on varying perspectives.

Table 12.4 Assessment grid

Describe	You precisely describe a musical phenomenon and correctly put to use technical terms.	You correctly describe a musical phenomenon and put to use technical terms from time to time.	You don’t describe the musical phenomenon correctly and don’t use technical terms yet.
Explain	You precisely explain how a musical phenomenon is situated historically and socially by referring to your research results.	You correctly explain how a musical phenomenon is situated historically and socially by partly referring to your research results.	You don’t explain correctly how a musical phenomenon is situated historically and socially and don’t refer to your research results yet.
Compare and Evaluate	You can conclusively compare and evaluate the quality of TikTok videos based on formal, aesthetic and creative criteria.	You can compare and evaluate the quality of TikTok videos by partly using formal, aesthetic and creative criteria.	Your comparison and evaluation of TikTok videos doesn’t refer to formal, aesthetic and creative criteria yet.
Discuss	You elaborately discuss the success of TikTok videos such as ‘The Wellerman’, underpinning your opinion with factual knowledge and evaluative criteria.	You discuss the success of TikTok videos, such as ‘The Wellerman’, partly underlying your opinion with factual knowledge and evaluative criteria.	You are only partly successful in representing your opinion on the success of TikTok videos, such as ‘The Wellerman’, in a discussion. Factual knowledge and evaluation criteria are used only a little for justification.

12.6 Conclusion and Outlook

Under the assumption that music education in schools should put more emphasis on the integration of content and language learning and that the development of musical literacy goes hand in hand with an increase in critical cultural consciousness, this chapter tries to apply PTDL and the concept of deeper learning to the context of music education. Although many assumptions and theoretical accounts have to be complemented by empirical classroom research, there is evidence from other subjects that points to the relevance of the language of deeper learning to educational success in all subjects. Nevertheless, I propose conceiving music literacy as an overarching dimension that is relevant to all other dimensions of musical competences and has to be taken into account for all music educational designs. In conclusion, not only subject learning but also inclusion and educational inequality are addressed.

12.7 Learning Materials

Student Material

Overview

Do you know ‘The Wellerman’? Last year a short version of the song went viral on TikTok and, suddenly, everybody was singing ‘The Wellerman’.

Imagine the following situation: You have an internship at Rolling Stone magazine and are supposed to write an article explaining to the readers why the video of ‘The Wellerman’ is so successful.

In this project you will be asked to write an article for a music magazine using appropriate language by following the modules. The process starts with research on the shanty genre and gradually asks you to develop and use evaluation criteria for TikTok music videos. You will be given language tools to structure and formulate comparisons to put the success of ‘The Wellerman’ into context. As a self-experiment, you can also include your experiences attempting to make a viral shanty video yourself.

Worksheet 12.1Modules 1–2

Module 1

Getting Started

Let’s get started:

1. 1. Watch the original from Nathan Evans on YouTube (QR Code No. 1).

2. 2. Listen to a full version of ‘The Wellerman’ by The Longest Johns on YouTube (QR Code No. 2).

3. 3. Read the article ‘Shanty-Boom. Die Sehnsucht singt zuletzt.’ (Stefan Kruecken, Der Spiegel, QR Code No. 3).

Module 2

Exploring the Genre: What Is a ‘Shanty’?

In this module, you will explore the shanty genre. Based on a mind map, you will find a definition of the genre and describe its characteristics.

1. 1. Create a shared mind map and collect everything you already know about shanties.

   3–4 10 minutes.

2. 2. Do research on the internet (e.g. search the terms ‘shanty’ or ‘sea shanty’). Collect as much information as possible about the questions below and fill in your mind map. Write down the sources (you can create a list of links).

   1. a. What are shanties and when/how did they develop historically?

   2. b. What is the content of shanties?

   3. c. By whom were they sung? When and where?

   4. d. What function(s) did shanties originally serve?

   5. e. When and where are shanties sung today?

   6. f. What are the musical characteristics of shanties?

   7. g. What are famous shanty examples?

   3–4 30 minutes.

3. 3. Partner Interview: Walk around the classroom and find an interview partner. Let your partner explain to you what a shanty is using his/her notes collected during the research phase. Change roles after approximately three minutes. Your teacher will give you a sign (two rounds). Does your partner like shanties? Why (not)?

   10 minutes.

4. 4. Write a short encyclopaedia entry that sums up the most important information about the genre in academic style.

   or 15–20 minutes.

Useful phrases

• A sea shanty, chantey or chanty is a genre of …

• The term shanty refers to …

• The shanty genre is typified by …

• The lyrics are often …

• Shanties were sung in … contexts and functioned as …

Shanty and Work Song – A Comparison

Shanties do have some things in common with the work songs that were invented by African slaves to accompany their work.

1. 1. Compare: What do the two genres have in common, and what distinguishes them? Refer to musical characteristics and to the functions the music served.

   15–20 minutes.

Similarities	Shanties	Work Songs Invented by African Slaves
Musical Characteristics:
Function:
Differences:	Shanties	Work Songs Invented by African Slaves
Musical Characteristics:
Function:

Useful technical terms

• Musical characteristics:

• Call-and-response format, melody, polyphony, punctuated rhythm, multiple rhythmic patterns, improvisation, percussive sounds (like shouts or moans)

• Functions:

• Reminding of home, raising morale, passing down information about life experience, synchronising work in rhythm

Module 4

Nathan Evans’ ‘The Wellerman’: Why Do People Like It?

1. 1. Watch Nathan Evans’ original video on TikTok and write down a description of the characteristics of ‘The Wellerman’ version and its rendition.

   or 10 minutes.

2. 2. Read the comments below the video and write down any comments that justify or illustrate what was (or was not) particularly well done.

   or 15–20 minutes.

3. 3. Create a table: What kinds of criteria are mentioned in the comments? Distinguish between musical and non-musical criteria. Add some more criteria that are, in your opinion, important to judge the quality and success of a song video on TikTok.

   3–4 30 minutes.

4. 4. How would your comment sound? Write a short comment that you could post on TikTok. Use appropriate ‘TikTok comment language’ (including emojis and using expressions like ‘being CEO of sth.’,’extra’, ‘fire’ or ‘lit’, ‘flex’, etc.) and use at least two of the criteria from your table in Task 3.

   1 5 minutes.

5. 5. Present the criteria you identified in class and read out your comments. Discuss whether or not your comments are appropriate with respect to the criteria and give reasons.

   15–20 minutes.

6. 6. Why did Nathan Evans’ ‘The Wellerman’ video go viral? On the internet, you will find a variety of articles and comments on ‘The Wellerman’ and the Shanty-Tok phenomenon. Take some reading time and try to find out why people like and sing ‘The Wellerman’ and other shanties. Take notes on your findings. Don’t forget to make a list of links for the websites you used.

   1 10 minutes.

7. 7. Discuss your results with your partner. Formulate and write down two or three hypotheses about why people have recently liked ‘The Wellerman’ and shanties. What functions do the music or the video editing have? Compare your hypotheses to what you found out about the function of the original shanty genre (Module 2)

   15-20 min.

Module 5

What Makes the Difference? Comparing Versions of ‘The Wellerman’

There are countless arrangements of Nathan Evans’ version of ‘The Wellerman’.

1. 1. Take 8–10 minutes and watch as many arrangements as possible.

2. 2. Choose two arrangements, one that you like and one that you don’t like. Write down who did the arrangement and save the video in your app.

3. 3. Compare the two arrangements in academic writing style and following the instructions for comparing song videos.

   • Write an introduction describing the two arrangements and giving reasons for your choice.

   • Use the criteria you elaborated in Module 4 as aspects of comparison and give evidence for them by referring to elements of the arrangements.

   • Structure your text by using paragraphs and linking words.

     1. a. Connectives for comparison:

        • in the same way, similarly, likewise, like, also, equally, as with

     2. b. Connectives for contrast:

        • however, but, yet, otherwise, on the one hand … on the other hand, even though, unlike, instead of, alternatively, in contrast, whereas

   • In your conclusion, evaluate which arrangement you like better and give reasons.

   1 40 minutes.

Module 6

Your Own Version of ‘The Wellerman’

Create your own version by video recording your own singing or by adding a second voice, rhythm, choreography, etc. to Nathan Evans’ video. Use the criteria from Module 4 to check on the quality of your work and to assess the work of other groups.

• 3-4 30 minutes.

Module 7

Finding Another Example

‘The Wellerman’ went viral in a very short time. You surely know other musical phenomena/examples that went viral in a similar way on TikTok or on another social media platform.

1. 1. Choose one example. What does it have in common with ‘The Wellerman’, and what distinguishes it? Include all your findings about ‘The Wellerman’ and prepare a short presentation (2.5–4 minutes) for your classmates, including a structured comparison. Use the structure and language help given in Modules 3 and 5.

   15-20 minutes.

Module 8

An Article for Rolling Stone Magazine

Now you are ready for your article for Rolling Stone magazine! Explain to the readers why ‘The Wellerman’ video is so successful by taking the following steps.

• Write a headline/title that captures your readers’ interest.

Introduction

• Try to maintain the readers’ interest with an opening sentence that might intrigue music lovers or people interested in social phenomena.

• You can include interesting numbers, provoking questions, etc. to highlight your point.

• Clearly define the topic, focusing on the purpose of your article, which is to explain a music phenomenon among young people to older people.

Main part

• Write in a way that suits the purpose of your article, putting ‘The Wellerman’ into the context of the genre and other TikTok videos that have gone viral.

• If you base your article on available texts, refer to general ideas from the material. You are not expected to give evidence from the text.

• Explain ‘The Wellerman’ phenomenon in detail.

• Follow a clear and logical structure and use paragraphs using the criteria from Modules 3 and 4 to formulate convincing reasons for its success.

• Give examples and evidence, referring to important facts, statistical information or your own personal musical experience to back up your arguments.

• Make clear which reasons for success are the most important ones.

Conclusion

• Indicate that you are coming to a conclusion, using phrases such as in conclusion, on the whole, finally, as a result, etc.

• Sum up your position and your main arguments. Do not, however, use the same phrasing as you used to introduce your arguments.

• You can also give an outlook for the future, speculating about other music genres going viral.

Throughout your text

• Write clear sentences. Use linking words, especially those for comparing different versions of ‘The Wellerman’ and different music genres.

• Write in a way that appeals to your target group of music lovers, who are likely to be older than yourself.

• Use vocabulary specific to music that is appropriate for your target group and purpose.

• 60–80 minutes.

Additional Information and Material for Teachers

Music

An a capella version of The Wellerman can be found on this album:

• The Longest Johns (2018). Between Wind and Water. Bristol: Thekla.

The original TikTok Video (Nathan Evans) can be found here:

• Nathan Evans (2020). ‘The Wellerman’. Original TikTok Video on YouTube: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ji1ODjzKn6E&ab_channel=tufcat13

Articles

Hunt, E. (2021) The true story behind the viral TikTok sea shanty hit. The Guardian, 15.01.2021. https://www.theguardian.com/world/2021/jan/15/shantytok-how-a-19th-century-seafaring-epic-inspired-a-covid-generation

Kulen, Y. (2021). Viraler Trend auf TikTok: Warum jetzt alle Seemannslieder singen. Der Stern, 17.01.2021. https://www.stern.de/digital/online/trend-auf-tiktok--warum-jetzt-alle--sea-shanties--singen--30003442.html

Kruecken, S. (2021). Shanty-Boom. Die Sehnsucht singt zuletzt. Der Spiegel, 25.01.2021. https://www.spiegel.de/geschichte/shantys-auf-tiktok-warum-the-wellerman-eine-riesenwelle-macht-a-2cd19d96-8a29-4b2b-99e1-978be4468ee6

Vahland, K. (2021). Nathan Evans. Sueddeutsche Zeitung, 25.02.2021. https://www.sueddeutsche.de/meinung/sea-shanty-wellerman-nathan-evans-tiktok-1.5218156

Vinter, R. (2021). How a Scottish postie’s simple sea shanty struck a global chord. The Guardian, 16.01.2021. https://www.theguardian.com/music/2021/jan/16/how-a-scottish-posties-simple-sea-shanty-struck-a-global-chord

Organisation, Methods and Additional Comments

For each module, it is suggested whether students should work alone, with a partner or in groups. This can be handled very flexibly, depending on what the learning group is used to.

Also, depending on the learning group, a sample solution for all tasks should be prepared in advance to identify possible linguistic difficulties and to decide where language scaffolding might be useful.

Assessment Grid

Avoiding superficial learning and engaging students in deeper learning has been a crucial goal of mathematics educators for many decades. In mathematics, deeper learning particularly refers to developing conceptual understanding and drawing connections between formerly unconnected knowledge pieces (Hiebert & Carpenter, Reference Hiebert, Carpenter and Grouws1992). Within the last years, mathematics education research has increasingly investigated the role of language for reaching these goals of deeper learning (Moschkovich, Reference Moschkovich2010; Pimm, Reference Pimm1987; Prediger, Reference Prediger, Ahrenholz, Jeuk, Lütke, Paetsch and Roll2019b). In this chapter, we report on this subject-specific research on language and mathematics teaching and learning, and we relate it to the ideas of pluriliteracy teaching (Coyle & Meyer, Reference Coyle and Meyer2021), with concrete examples from algebra learning.

13.1 Mathematical Literacy and Academic Literacy in Mathematics

Target Concepts in Algebra and Forms of Algebraic Reasoning

Many students and adults think about algebra as a game of meaningless transformations conducted according to transformation rules learnt by heart, as in the following example.

$3x+5=11\iff 3x=11-5=6\iff x=2$

The rules are as follows: we can transform an equation by adding or multiplying the same numbers on both sides; for example, adding -5 on both sides eliminates the 5 on the left side and makes -5 occur on the right side of the second equation. Then, multiplying by 1/3 or dividing by 3 realises the second transformation.

In students’ thinking, transformation rules that are not underpinned with meaning can easily become arbitrary, so typical errors have often been documented, such as the error 3x + 5 = 11 ⇔ 3x = 16 (Malle, Reference Malle1993). Additionally, students who cannot make sense of the meaning of the variables and equations are not able to use equations to structure everyday situations (i.e. to generalise mathematical relations).

Algebra education research has therefore distinguished typical forms of algebraic reasoning, all of them being important in school (Bednarz, Kieran & Lee, Reference Bednarz, Kieran and Lee1996; Kieran, Reference Kieran, Stacey, Chick and Kendal2004):

• transformational activities (i.e. manipulating algebraic expressions and equations according to procedural transformation rules without interpreting the symbolic letters)

• operational activities (i.e. using algebraic expressions and equations mainly for evaluating them for concrete numbers)

• generational and relational activities (i.e. using variables, expressions and equations to express general structures or conditions in everyday situations or inner-mathematical situations)

• meta-level activities (i.e. to justify the transformation rules with respect to the meaning of variables and the relational activities).

Whereas transformational and operational activities mainly focus on procedural aspects of algebra, generational activities and meta-level activities are key for developing conceptual understanding and thereby deeper learning.

For these activities, the four target concepts are variable, equation, solution of equation and equivalence of equation. Table 13.1 presents the algebraic target concepts with their meanings in the different forms of reasoning. Some of them will be explained in further detail in the following sections. Even if not all concepts are explained in detail in the table, the overview shows that the algebraic target concepts form a network of concepts with strong connections that need to be built by students. Furthermore, Table 13.1 depicts that the meta-level activity of justifying the transformation rules includes and connects the three activities of algebraic reasoning.

Table 13.1 Four algebraic target concepts and their meanings in different forms of reasoning

Four Concepts	Operational Activities	Generational and Relational Activities	Transformational Activities
Variable	Variable as letter to be evaluated by numbers (i.e. place holder)	Variable as unknown or generalised number	Variable as symbol without interpretation
Equation	Equations as statements with place holders to be evaluated	Equation describes the condition of a situation with unknown or generalised numbers	Equation as chain of symbols without interpretation
Solution of an Equation	Numbers belong to the set of the solutions of the equation if the equation turns into a true statement after evaluating the place holders by the number	(Formerly unknown) numbers belong to the set of solutions of the equation if they fulfil the condition described by the equation Equations with generalised numbers describe relations which are true for all numbers	Solution of equation as result after transformation process
Equivalence of Two Equations	Two equations are equivalent if they have the same set of solutions	Two equations are equivalent if they describe the same condition/situation (e.g. given in a figure)	One equation is equivalent to a second when it can be transformed into the second by the transformation rules
Meta-Level Activity: Justifying the Rules	The transformation rules for equations guarantee that an equation is really transformed into a condition with the same set of solutions

(Malle, Reference Malle1993, p. 47; Prediger, Reference Prediger2020, p. 163)

The list of highly complex meanings sheds a first light as to why the two most important discourse practices are also challenging with respect to subject-specific literacy: explaining meanings of these four algebraic target concepts requires a highly elaborated language and their highly condensed articulation in Table 13.1 is not at all accessible for students in the first approach. That is why algebra education researchers regularly work with multiple representations, as reported in the next subsection.