Skip to main content Accessibility help

We use cookies to distinguish you from other users and to provide you with a better experience on our websites. Close this message to accept cookies or find out how to manage your cookie settings.

Close cookie message
×
Hostname: page-component-848d4c4894-x5gtn Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-05-14T16:59:30.864Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

17 - Action in Development

Plasticity, Variability, and Flexibility

from Part IV - Action

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  26 September 2020

By
Jaya Rachwani ,
Justine Hoch  and
Karen E. Adolph
Edited by
Jeffrey J. Lockman  and
Catherine S. Tamis-LeMonda
Jeffrey J. Lockman
Affiliation:
Tulane University, Louisiana
Catherine S. Tamis-LeMonda
Affiliation:
New York University
Get access

Summary

Infant motor skill acquisition is so rapid and dramatic that a century of researchers – and eons of parents – have marveled at the scope of developmental change. At birth, infants are essentially prisoners of gravity, unable to lift their heads from their caregivers’ chest. But by 2 years of age, infants can “pluck a pellet with fine pincer prehension” (Gesell, 1929, p. 132) and race on two feet across the living room floor. This remarkable transformation in action characterizes the development of basic motor skills – posture for supporting the body against gravitational and inertial forces, manual skills for interacting with objects and surfaces, and locomotion for moving the body through the environment (Adolph & Berger, 2015).

Keywords

Infant motor developmentlocomotionwalkingsittinginfant postureinfant manual actionreachingcrawlingmotor milestonesplasticity and motor developmentculture and motor developmentindividual differences in motor developmentvariability and motor developmentflexibility and motor development
Type
Chapter
Information
The Cambridge Handbook of Infant Development
Brain, Behavior, and Cultural Context
 , pp. 469 - 494
Publisher: Cambridge University Press
Print publication year: 2020

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Adolph, K. E. (1997). Learning in the development of infant locomotion. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development, 62(3, Serial No. 251), 1–140.Google Scholar
Adolph, K. E. (2000). Specificity of learning: Why infants fall over a veritable cliff. Psychological Science, 11, 290–295.Google Scholar
Adolph, K. E., & Avolio, A. M. (2000). Walking infants adapt locomotion to changing body dimensions. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 26, 1148–1166.Google Scholar
Adolph, K. E., & Berger, S. E. (2006). Motor development. In Kuhn, D. & Siegler, R. S. (Eds.), Handbook of child psychology. Vol. 2: Cognition, perception, and language (6th ed., pp. 161–213). New York, NY: Wiley.Google Scholar
Adolph, K. E., (2015). Physical and motor development. In Bornstein, M. H. & Lamb, M. E. (Eds.), Development science: An advanced textbook (7th ed., pp. 261–333). New York, NY: Psychology Press.Google Scholar
Adolph, K. E., Berger, S. E., & Leo, A. J. (2011). Developmental continuity? Crawling, cruising, and walking. Developmental Science, 14, 306–318.Google Scholar
Adolph, K. E., Cole, W. G., Komati, M., Garciaguirre, J. S., Badaly, D., Lingeman, J. M., … Sotsky, R. B. (2012). How do you learn to walk? Thousands of steps and dozens of falls per day. Psychological Science, 23, 1387–1394.Google Scholar
Adolph, K. E., Cole, W. G., & Vereijken, B. (2015). Intraindividual variability in the development of motor skills in childhood. In Diehl, M., Hooker, K., & Sliwinski, M. (Eds.), Handbook of intraindividual variability across the lifespan (pp. 59–83). New York, NY: Routledge.Google Scholar
Adolph, K. E., & Franchak, J. M. (2016). The development of motor behavior. Wiley Interdisciplinary Reviews: Cognitive Science (WIREs), 8(1–2).Google Scholar
Adolph, K. E., & Hoch, J. E. (2019). Motor development: Embodied, embedded, enculturated, and enabling. Annual Review of Psychology, 70, 141–164.Google Scholar
Adolph, K. E., Hoch, J. E., & Cole, W. G. (2018). Development (of walking): 15 suggestions. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 22(699–711).Google Scholar
Adolph, K. E., Karasik, L. B., & Tamis-LeMonda, C. S. (2010a). Motor skills. In Bornstein, M. H. (Ed.), Handbook of cultural development science. Vol. 1. Domains of development across cultures (pp. 61–88). New York, NY: Taylor & Francis.Google Scholar
Adolph, K. E., Karasik, L. B., (2010b). Using social information to guide action: Infants’ locomotion over slippery slopes. Neural Networks, 23, 1033–1042.Google Scholar
Adolph, K. E., & Robinson, S. R. (2013). The road to walking: What learning to walk tells us about development. In Zelazo, P. (Ed.), Oxford handbook of developmental psychology (pp. 403–443). New York, NY: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Adolph, K. E., (2015). Motor development. In Liben, L. & Muller, U. (Eds.), Handbook of child psychology and developmental science. Vol. 2: Cognitive processes (7th ed., pp. 113–157). New York, NY: Wiley.Google Scholar
Adolph, K. E., Vereijken, B., & Denny, M. A. (1998). Learning to crawl. Child Development, 69, 1299–1312.Google Scholar
Adolph, K. E., Vereijken, B., & Shrout, P. E. (2003). What changes in infant walking and why. Child Development, 74, 474–497.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Assaiante, C., & Amblard, B. (1995). An ontogenetic model for the sensorimotor organization of balance control in humans. Human Movement Science, 14, 13–43.Google Scholar
Atun-Einy, O., Berger, S. E., & Scher, A. (2012). Pulling to stand: Common trajectories and individual differences. Developmental Psychobiology, 54, 187–198.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Atun-Einy, O., Berger, S. E., (2013). Assessing motivation to move and its relationship to motor development in infancy. Infant Behavior and Development, 36, 457–469.Google Scholar
Atun-Einy, O., Cohen, D., Samuel, M., & Scher, A. (2013). Season of birth, crawling onset, and motor development in 7-month-old infants. Journal of Reproductive and Infant Psychology, 31(4), 342–351.Google Scholar
Bailey, D. B., Hebbeler, K., Scarborough, A., Spiker, D., & Mallik, S. (2004). First experiences with early intervention: A national perspective. Pediatrics, 113, 887–896.Google Scholar
Barrett, T. M., & Needham, A. W. (2008). Developmental differences in infants’ use of an object’s shape to grasp it securely. Developmental Psychobiology, 50(1), 97–106.Google Scholar
Bastien, G. J., Willems, P. A., Schepens, B., & Heglund, N. C. (2016). The mechanics of head-supported load carriage by Nepalese porters. Journal of Experimental Biology, 219, 3626–3634.Google Scholar
Bayley, N. (1936). The development of motor abilities during the first three years: A study of 61 infants tested repeatedly. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development, 1, 1–26.Google Scholar
Bayley, N. (2006). Bayley scales of infant and toddler development: Bayley-III (3rd ed. Vol. 7). San Antonio, TX: Harcourt Assessment, Psychological Corporation.Google Scholar
Benson, J. B. (1993). Season of birth and onset of locomotion: Theoretical and methodological implications. Infant Behavior and Development, 16, 69–81.Google Scholar
Berger, S. E., Adolph, K. E., & Lobo, S. A. (2005). Out of the toolbox: Toddlers differentiate wobbly and wooden handrails. Child Development, 76, 1294–1307.Google Scholar
Berger, S. E., Chan, G., & Adolph, K. E. (2014). What cruising infants understand about support for locomotion. Infancy, 19, 117–137.Google Scholar
Bernstein, N. A. (1996). On dexterity and its development. In Latash, M. L. & Turvey, M. T. (Eds.), Dexterity and its development (pp. 3–244). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.Google Scholar
Bertenthal, B. I., & Bai, D. L. (1989). Infants’ sensitivity to optical flow for controlling posture. Developmental Psychology, 25, 936–945.Google Scholar
Berthier, N. E., & Keen, R. E. (2006). Development of reaching in infancy. Experimental Brain Research, 169, 507–518.Google Scholar
Bhat, A. N., & Galloway, J. C. (2006). Toy-oriented changes during early arm movements: Hand kinematics. Infant Behavior and Development, 29, 358–372.Google Scholar
Bisi, M. C., & Stagni, R. (2015). Evaluation of toddler different strategies during the first six-months of independent walking: A longitudinal study. Gait and Posture, 41, 574–579.Google Scholar
Bobath, K., & Bobath, B. (1984). The neuro-developmental treatment. In Scrutton, D. (Ed.), Management of the motor disorders of children with cerebral palsy (pp. 6–18). London: Spastics International Medical Publications.Google Scholar
Bourgeois, K. S., Khawar, A. W., Neal, S. A., & Lockman, J. J. (2005). Infant manual exploration of objects, surfaces, and their interrelations. Infancy, 8, 233–252.Google Scholar
Bril, B., & Sabatier, C. (1986). The cultural context of motor development: Postural manipulations in the daily life of Bambara babies (Mali). International Journal of Behavioral Development, 9, 439–453.Google Scholar
Chang, C. L., Kubo, M., Buzzi, U., & Ulrich, B. (2006). Early changes in muscle activation patterns of toddlers during walking. Infant Behavior and Development, 29, 175–188.Google Scholar
Chinn, L. K., Noonan, C. F., Hoffman, M., & Lockman, J. J. (2019). Development of infant reaching strategies to tactile targets on the face. Frontiers in Psychology, 10, 9.Google Scholar
Clifton, R. K., Muir, D. W., Ashmead, D. H., & Clarkson, M. G. (1993). Is visually guided reaching in early infancy a myth? Child Development, 64, 1099–1110.Google Scholar
Cole, W. G., Lingeman, J. M., & Adolph, K. E. (2012). Go naked: Diapers affect infant walking. Developmental Science, 15, 783–790.Google Scholar
Connolly, K. J., & Dalgleish, M. (1989). The emergence of a tool-using skill in infancy. Developmental Psychology, 25, 894–912.Google Scholar
Cunha, A. B., Lobo, M. A., Kokkoni, E., Galloway, J. C., & Tudella, E. (2015). Effect of short-term training on reaching behavior in infants: A randomized controlled clinical trial. Journal of Motor Behavior, 48, 132–142.Google Scholar
Davis, B. E., Moon, R. Y., Sachs, H. C., & Ottolini, M. C. (1998). Effects of sleep position on infant motor development. Pediatrics, 102, 1135–1140.Google Scholar
de Vries, J. I. P., Visser, G. H. A., & Prechtl, H. F. R. (1982). The emergence of fetal behaviour. I: Qualitative aspects. Early Human Development, 7, 301–322.Google Scholar
Devine, J. (1985). The versatility of human locomotion. American Anthropologist, 87, 550–570.Google Scholar
Dudek-Shriber, L., & Zelazy, S. (2007). The effects of prone positioning on the quality and acquisition of developmental milestones in four-month-old infants. Pediatric Physical Therapy, 19, 48–55.Google Scholar
Fagard, J. (2000). Linked proximal and distal changes in the reaching behavior of 5- to 12-month-old human infants grasping objects of different sizes. Infant Behavior and Development, 23, 317–329.Google Scholar
Fang, H. S. Y., & Yu, F. Y. K. (1960). Foot binding in Chinese women. Canadian Journal of Surgery, 293, 195–202.Google Scholar
Fetters, L. (2010). Perspective on variability in the development of human action. Physical Therapy, 90, 1860–1867.Google Scholar
Fontenelle, S. A., Kahrs, B. A., Neal, S. A., Newton, A. T., & Lockman, J. J. (2007). Infant manual exploration of composite substrates. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 98, 153–167.Google Scholar
Geber, M. (1961). Longitudinal study and psycho-motor development among Baganda children. In Nielson, G. (Ed.), Proceedings of the XIV International Congress of Applied Psychology (Vol. 3, pp. 50–60). Oxford: Munksgaard.Google Scholar
Gesell, A. (1929). Infancy and human growth. New York, NY: Macmillan.Google Scholar
Gesell, A. (1946). The ontogenesis of infant behavior. In Carmichael, L. (Ed.), Manual of child psychology (pp. 295–331). New York, NY: John Wiley.Google Scholar
Gesell, A., & Armatruda, C. S. (1945). The embryology of behavior: The beginnings of the human mind. New York, NY: Harper & Brothers.Google Scholar
Gibson, E. J. (1988). Exploratory behavior in the development of perceiving, acting, and the acquiring of knowledge. Annual Review of Psychology, 39, 1–41.Google Scholar
Gibson, E. J., & Schmuckler, M. A. (1989). Going somewhere: An ecological and experimental approach to development of mobility. Ecological Psychology, 1, 3–25.Google Scholar
Gill, S. V., Adolph, K. E., & Vereijken, B. (2009). Change in action: How infants learn to walk down slopes. Developmental Science, 12, 888–902.Google Scholar
Hallemans, A., de Clercq, D., Otten, B., & Aerts, P. (2005). 3D joint dynamics of walking in toddlers: A cross-sectional study spanning the first rapid development phase of walking. Gait and Posture, 22, 107–118.Google Scholar
Hebb, D. O. (1949). The organization of behavior. New York, NY: Wiley.Google Scholar
Hebbeler, K., Spiker, D., Bailey, D. B., Scarborough, A., Mallik, S., Simeonsson, R., … Nelson, L. (2007). Early intervention for infants and toddlers with disabilities and their families: participants, services, and outcomes: Final report of the National Early Intervention Longitudinal Study (NEILS). Retrieved from www.sri.com/publication/national-early-intervention-longitudinal-study-neils-final-report.Google Scholar
Hedberg, A., Carlberg, E. B., Forssberg, H., & Hadders-Algra, M. (2005). Development of postural adjustments in sitting position during the first half year of life. Developmental Medicine and Child Neurology, 47, 312–320.Google Scholar
Hewes, G. W. (1955). World distribution of certain postural habits. American Anthropologist, 57, 234–244.Google Scholar
Hoch, J. E., O’Grady, S. M., & Adolph, K. E. (2018). It’s the journey, not the destination: Locomotor exploration in infants. Developmental Science, 22(2), e12740.Google Scholar
Hopkins, B., & Westra, T. (1988). Maternal handling and motor development: An intracultural study. Genetic, Social and General Psychology Monographs, 114, 379–408.Google Scholar
Hopkins, B., (1990). Motor development, maternal expectations, and the role of handling. Infant Behavior and Development, 13, 117–122.Google Scholar
Huang, H., Ellis, T. D., Wagenaar, R. C., & Fetters, L. (2013). The impact of body-scaled information on reaching. Physical Therapy, 93, 41–49.Google Scholar
Ivanenko, Y. P., Dominici, N., Cappellini, G., Dan, B., Cheron, G., & Lacquaniti, F. (2004). Development of pendulum mechanism and kinematic coordination from the first unsupported steps in toddlers. Journal of Experimental Biology, 207, 3797–3810.Google Scholar
Jacquet, A. Y., Esseily, R., Rider, D., & Fagard, J. (2012). Handedness for grasping objects and declarative pointing: A longitudinal study. Developmental Psychobiology, 54, 36–46.Google Scholar
Jayaraman, S., Fausey, C. M., & Smith, L. B. (2017). Why are faces denser in the visual experiences of younger than older infants? Developmental Psychology, 53, 38–49.Google Scholar
Karasik, L. B., Adolph, K. E., Tamis-LeMonda, C. S., & Zuckerman, A. (2012). Carry on: Spontaneous object carrying in 13-month-old crawling and walking infants. Developmental Psychology, 48, 389–397.Google Scholar
Karasik, L. B., Tamis-LeMonda, C. S., & Adolph, K. E. (2011). Transition from crawling to walking and infants’ actions with objects and people. Child Development, 82, 1199–1209.Google Scholar
Karasik, L. B., Tamis-LeMonda, C. S., Adolph, K. E., & Bornstein, M. H. (2015). Places and postures: A cross-cultural comparison of sitting in 5-month-olds. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 46, 1023–1038.Google Scholar
Karasik, L. B., Tamis-LeMonda, C. S., Ossmy, O., & Adolph, K. E. (2018). The ties that bind: Cradling in Tajikistan. PLoS ONE, 13, e0204428.Google Scholar
Kattwinkel, J., Hauck, F. R., Keenan, M. E., Malloy, M., & Moon, R. Y. (2005). The changing concept of sudden infant death syndrome: Diagnostic coding shifts, controversies regarding the sleeping environment, and new variables to consider in reducing risk. Pediatrics, 116, 1245–1255.Google Scholar
Keen, R. (2011). The development of problem solving in young children: A critical cognitive skill. Annual Review of Psychology, 62, 1–21.Google Scholar
Kokkoni, E., Haworth, J. L., Harbourne, R. T., Stergiou, N., & Kyvelidou, A. (2017). Infant sitting postural control appears robust across changes in surface context. Somatosensory and Motor Research, 34, 265–272.Google Scholar
Konczak, J., Borutta, M., Topka, H., & Dichgans, J. (1995). The development of goal-directed reaching in infants: Hand trajectory formation and joint torque control. Experimental Brain Research, 106, 156–168.Google Scholar
Konner, M. J. (1972). Aspects of the developmental ethology of a foraging people. In Blurton-Jones, N. (Ed.), Ethological studies of child behavior (pp. 285–304). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Kretch, K. S., & Adolph, K. E. (2013a). Cliff or step? Posture-specific learning at the edge of a drop-off. Child Development, 84, 226–240.Google Scholar
Kretch, K. S., (2013b). No bridge too high: Infants decide whether to cross based on the probability of falling not the severity of the potential fall. Developmental Science, 16, 336–351.Google Scholar
Kretch, K. S., (2015). Active vision in passive locomotion: Real-world free viewing in infants and adults. Developmental Science, 18, 736–750.Google Scholar
Lagerspetz, K., Nygard, M., & Strandvik, C. (1971). The effects of training in crawling on the motor and mental development of infants. Scandinavian Journal of Psychology, 12, 192–197.Google Scholar
Lampl, M., Veldhuis, J. D., & Johnson, M. L. (1992). Saltation and stasis: A model of human growth. Science, 258, 801–803.Google Scholar
Lee, D. K., Cole, W. G., Golenia, L., & Adolph, K. E. (2018). The cost of simplifying complex developmental phenomena: A new perspective on learning to walk. Developmental Science, 21, e12615.Google Scholar
Libertus, K., Joh, A. S., & Needham, A. W. (2016). Motor training at 3 months affects object exploration 12 months later. Developmental Science, 19, 1058–1066.Google Scholar
Libertus, K., & Needham, A. W. (2010). Teach to reach: The effects of active vs. passive reaching experiences on action and perception. Vision Research, 50, 2750–2757.Google Scholar
Liebenberg, L. (2006). Persistence hunting by modern hunter-gatherers. Current Anthropology, 47, 1017–1025.Google Scholar
Lobo, M. A., & Galloway, J. C. (2012). Enhanced handling and positioning in early infancy advances development throughout the first year. Child Development, 83, 1290–1302.Google Scholar
Lockman, J. J., Ashmead, D. H., & Bushnell, E. W. (1984). The development of anticipatory hand orientation during infancy. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 37, 176–186.Google Scholar
Lockman, J. J., & Kahrs, B. A. (2017). New insights into the development of human tool use. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 26, 330–334.Google Scholar
Logan, S. W., Schreiber, M. A., Lobo, M. A., Pritchard, B., George, L., & Galloway, J. C. (2015). Real-world performance: Physical activity, play, and object-related behaviors of toddlers with and without disabilities. Pediatric Physical Therapy, 27, 433–441.Google Scholar
Martorell, R., Onis, M., Martines, J., Black, M., Onyango, A., & Dewey, K. G. (2006). WHO motor development study: Windows of achievement for six gross motor development milestones. Acta Paediatrica, 95 (S450), 86–95.Google Scholar
McCarty, M. E., Clifton, R. K., & Collard, R. R. (2001). The beginnings of tool use by infants and toddlers. Infancy, 2, 233–256.Google Scholar
McGraw, M. B. (1932). From reflex to muscular control in the assumption of an erect posture and ambulation in the human infant. Child Development, 3, 291–297.Google Scholar
McGraw, M. B. (1940). Neuromuscular development of the human infant as exemplified in the achievement of erect locomotion. Journal of Pediatrics, 17, 747–771.Google Scholar
McGraw, M. B. (1941a). Development of neuro-muscular mechanisms as reflected in the crawling and creeping behavior of the human infant. Journal of Genetic Psychology, 58, 83–111.Google Scholar
McGraw, M. B. (1941b). Neuro-motor maturation of anti-gravity functions as reflected in the development of a sitting posture. Journal of Genetic Psychology, 59, 155–175.Google Scholar
McGraw, M. B. (1945). The neuromuscular maturation of the human infant. New York, NY: Columbia University Press.Google Scholar
McGraw, M. B., & Breeze, K. W. (1941). Quantitative studies in the development of erect locomotion. Child Development, 12, 267–303.Google Scholar
Mei, J. (1994). The Northern Chinese custom of rearing babies in sandbags: Implications for motor and intellectual development. In van Rossum, J. H. A. & Laszlo, J. I. (Eds.), Motor development: Aspects of normal and delayed development (pp. 41–48). Amsterdam, the Netherlands: VU Uitgeverij.Google Scholar
Minetti, A. E., Formenti, F., & Ardigo, L. P. (2006). Himalayan porter’s specialization: Metabolic power, economy, efficiency, and skill. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London B: Biological Sciences, 273, 2791–2797.Google Scholar
Morgan, C., Darrah, J., Gordon, A. M., Harbourne, R. T., Spittle, A., Johnson, R., & Fetters, L. (2016). Effectiveness of motor interventions in infants with cerebral palsy: A systematic review. Developmental Medicine and Child Neurology, 58, 900–909.Google Scholar
Mutlu, A., Krosschell, K., & Gaebler-Spira, D. (2009). Treadmill training with partial body-weight support in children with cerebral palsy. Developmental Medicine and Child Neurology, 51, 268–275.Google Scholar
Needham, A. W., Barrett, T., & Peterman, K. (2002). A pick-me-up for infants’ exploratory skills: Early simulated experiences reaching for objects using “sticky” mittens enhances young infants’ object exploration skills. Infant Behavior and Development, 25, 279–295.Google Scholar
Ossmy, O., Hoch, J. E., MacAlpine, P., Hasan, S., Stone, P., & Adolph, K. E. (2018). Variety wins: Soccer-playing robots and infant walking. Frontiers in Neurorobotics, 12, 19.Google Scholar
Patrick, S. K., Noah, J. A., & Yang, J. F. (2012). Developmental constraints of quadrupedal coordination across crawling styles in human infants. Journal of Neurophysiology, 107, 3050–3061.Google Scholar
Piek, J. P., & Carman, R. (1994). Developmental profiles of spontaneous movements in infants. Early Human Development, 39, 109–126.Google Scholar
Pin, T., Eldridge, B., & Galea, M. P. (2007). A review of the effects of sleep position, play position, and equipment use on motor development in infants. Developmental Medicine and Child Neurology, 49, 858–867.Google Scholar
Piper, M. C., & Darrah, J. (1994). Motor assessment of the developing infant. Philadelphia, PA: WB Saunders.Google Scholar
Rachwani, J., Golenia, L., Herzberg, O., & Adolph, K. E. (2019). Postural, visual, and manual coordination in the development of prehension. Child Development, 90, 1559–1568.Google Scholar
Rachwani, J., Santamaria, V., Saavedra, S., & Woollacott, M. H. (2015). The development of trunk control and its relation to reaching in infancy: A longitudinal study. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience, 9, 1–12.Google Scholar
Rachwani, J., Soska, K. C., & Adolph, K. E. (2017). Behavioral flexibility in learning to sit. Developmental Psychobiology, 59, 937–948.Google Scholar
Reissland, N., Francis, B., Aydin, E., Mason, J., & Schaal, B. (2014). The development of anticipation in the fetus: A longitudinal account of human fetal mouth movements in reaction to and anticipation of touch. Developmental Psychobiology, 56, 955–963.Google Scholar
Robson, P. (1984). Prewalking locomotor movements and their use in predicting standing and walking. Child Care, Health, and Development, 10, 317–330.Google Scholar
Rochat, P. (1989). Object manipulation and exploration in 2- to 5-month-old infants. Developmental Psychology, 25, 871–884.Google Scholar
Saavedra, S. L., van Donkelaar, P., & Woollacott, M. H. (2012). Learning about gravity: Segmental assessment of upright control as infants develop independent sitting. Journal of Neurophysiology, 108, 2215–2229.Google Scholar
Santrock, J. (2006). Life-span development (10th ed.). New York, NY: McGraw Hill.Google Scholar
Schum, N., Jovanovic, B., & Schwarzer, G. (2011). Ten- and twelve-month-olds’ visual anticipation of orientation and size during grasping. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 109, 218–231.Google Scholar
Shirley, M. M. (1931). The first two years: A study of twenty-five babies. Postural and locomotor development (Vol. 1). Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press.Google Scholar
Siegler, R., Deloache, J., Eisenberg, N. (2006). How children develop (2nd ed.). New York, NY: Worth.Google Scholar
Sigmundsson, H., Loras, H. W., & Haga, M. (2017). Exploring task-specific independent standing in 3- to 5-month-old infants. Frontiers in Psychology, 8, 657.Google Scholar
Snapp-Childs, W., & Corbetta, D. (2009). Evidence of early strategies in learning to walk. Infancy, 14, 101–116.Google Scholar
Soska, K. C., & Adolph, K. E. (2014). Postural position constrains multimodal object exploration in infants. Infancy, 19, 138–161.Google Scholar
Sparling, J. W., van Tol, J., & Chescheir, N. C. (1999). Fetal and neonatal hand movement. Physical Therapy, 79, 24–39.Google Scholar
Super, C. M. (1976). Environmental effects on motor development: The case of “African infant precocity”. Developmental Medicine and Child Neurology, 18, 561–567.Google Scholar
Thelen, E. (1979). Rhythmical stereotypies in normal human infants. Animal Behavior, 27, 699–715.Google Scholar
Thelen, E., Corbetta, D., Kamm, K., Spencer, J. P., Schneider, K., & Zernicke, R. F. (1993). The transition to reaching: Mapping intention and intrinsic dynamics. Child Development, 64, 1058–1098.Google Scholar
Thelen, E., Corbetta, D., & Spencer, J. P. (1996). Development of reaching during the first year: Role of movement speed. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 22, 1059–1076. doi:10.1037/0096-1523.22.5.1059Google Scholar
Thelen, E., & Smith, L. B. (1994). A dynamic systems approach to the development of cognition and action. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.Google Scholar
Theveniau, N., Boisgontier, M. P., Verieras, S., & Olivier, I. (2014). The effects of clothes on independent walking in toddlers. Gait and Posture, 39, 659–661.Google Scholar
Trettien, A. W. (1900). Creeping and walking. American Journal of Psychology, 12, 1–57.Google Scholar
Ulrich, B. D. (2010). Opportunities for early intervention based on theory, basic neuroscience, and clinical science. Physical Therapy, 90, 1868–1880.Google Scholar
van Wermeskerken, M., van der Kamp, J., & Savelsbergh, G. J. P. (2011). On the relation between action selection and movement control in 5- to 8-month-old infants. Experimental Brain Research, 211, 51–62.Google Scholar
Vereijken, B. (2010). The complexity of childhood development: Variability in perspective. Physical Therapy, 90, 1850–1859.Google Scholar
von Hofsten, C. (1991). Structuring of early reaching movements: A longitudinal study. Journal of Motor Behavior, 23, 280–292.Google Scholar
von Hofsten, C., Vishton, P. M., Spelke, E. S., Feng, Q., & Rosander, K. (1998). Predictive action in infancy: Tracking and reaching for moving objects. Cognition, 67, 255–285.Google Scholar
Wijnhoven, T. M. A., de Onis, M., Onyango, A. W., Wang, T., Bjoerneboe, G. A., Bhandari, N., … Rashidi, B. (2004). Assessment of gross motor development in the WHO Multicentre Growth Reference Study. Food and Nutrition Bulletin, 25, S37–S45.Google Scholar
Witherington, D. C. (2005). The development of prospective grasping control between 5 and 7 months: A longitudinal study. Infancy, 7, 143–161.Google Scholar
Zelazo, P. R., Zelazo, N. A., & Kolb, S. (1972). “Walking” in the newborn. Science, 176, 314–315.Google Scholar

Save book to Kindle

To save this book to your Kindle, first ensure coreplatform@cambridge.org is added to your Approved Personal Document E-mail List under your Personal Document Settings on the Manage Your Content and Devices page of your Amazon account. Then enter the ‘name’ part of your Kindle email address below. Find out more about saving to your Kindle.

Note you can select to save to either the @free.kindle.com or @kindle.com variations. ‘@free.kindle.com’ emails are free but can only be saved to your device when it is connected to wi-fi. ‘@kindle.com’ emails can be delivered even when you are not connected to wi-fi, but note that service fees apply.

Find out more about the Kindle Personal Document Service.

Available formats
×

Save book to Dropbox

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Dropbox.

Available formats
×

Save book to Google Drive

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Google Drive.

Available formats
×