Index
Note: page numbers in bold type indicate figures or tables.
Abramovich, Roman, 58
‘acts of citizenship’, , 83
Adoniov, Sergei, 502
African Americans, encouraged to emigrate, 265
Aldrich, Robert, 282
al-Qaeda, 512
American Colonization Society, 265
American Fugitive Slave Act (1850), 265
American Revolution, nation-state model and, 285
ancestry-based citizenship
applications for in European countries, 304
commodification of citizenship and, , 307
fairness, 14
meaningfulness, 152
motivation for European governments to offer, 299
strategic acquisition of, 4
Anderson, Benedict, 219
Andre, Judith, 339
anti-commodification arguments
coercion argument, 339
moral limits of markets,
motivational corruption argument,
queue-jumping examples, 338
value degradation argument,
wrong distribution argument,
Antigua & Barbuda
benefits of Commonwealth membership, 275
commission system, 61
extradition case, 121,
investor programme, non-refundable payment requirement, 383
Lihua Tian revocation case, , 431
potential security risk, 402
residence requirements, 34
revocation of citizenship provision, 424
Antilles, rejection of independence, 516
Arendt, Hannah,
Asia, increase in number of billionaires, 275
asylum, international rules around, 232
Australia
extension of citizenship to aboriginals, 92
‘innovation points test’, 395
minimum investment amount, 39
net inflows of HNWIs, 364
premise of citizenship in, 262
RBI programme, 31
residence requirements, 34
Barbados, 273
Bazkka, Salmo, 479
Belgium, nationality cases, 191
Belize, discretionary economic citizenship practices, 32
Bidoon populations, UAE’s forced distribution of Comoros citizenship for, , 150
Blaise, Séverine, 511
blasphemy laws, 258
blood donations, impact of offering payment for,
Boatcă, Manuela, 71
Bodin, Jean, 95
Bolivia, 271
Bonilla, Yarimar, 282
Bophuthatswana, 85
Boucher, Sandy, 493
Brazil, 268, 281
naturalisation by operation of law, 143
net outflows of HNWIs, 364
RBI programme, 31
Revolt of the Tailors, 265
Brennan, Jason, 338
Brink, Martijn van den, 171
British Nationality Act (1948), 270
Brown, Wendy, 324
Calvin, Jean, 248
Canada
business immigration reform,
CBI programme, methodological issues, 41
contentious history of CBI, 486
due diligence
comparison with SKN,
policy,
financing options, 60
Immigrant Investor Program, 10
investment options, 63
investor visa, impact of doubling cost, 6
minimum investment amount, 39
net inflows of HNWIs, 364
as new home for African Americans, 265
residence requirements, 34
revision of Business Immigration Programme, 1
role in the investment migration industry, 52
Caribbean
commodification of citizenship status, 274
due diligence reforms, 506
history of colonial entanglements with Europe, 260
investment options, 64
net inflows of HNWIs, 364
post-war extension of US citizenship rights and status to colonies, 273
real-estate development options, 384
Carrera, Sergio, 200
Castro-Gómez, Santiago, 268
Charlie Hebdo, 467
Chau-ping, Lee, 493
children
birthright nationality, 169
impact of citizenship revocation on, 423
inheritance of American citizenship, 306
inheritance of citizen status, 213, ,
inheritance of EU citizenship, 303
naturalisation by operation of law, 145
China
growth in average incomes, 290
growth in investments across the globe, 451
increase in GDP per capita, 450
increase in number of billionaires, 275
international mobility of passport holders, 251
millionaires considering emigrating to a different country, 455
net outflows of HNWIs, 364
push factors for HNWI migration, 369
role in the investment migration industry,
stock of outbound FDI held by,
Chinese Central Commission for Discipline Inspection, 123
Chinese National Bureau of Corruption Prevention, 124
Choksi, Mehul, 121,
Christian Church, 248
Cicero, Marcus Tullius, 70
circular migration, 526
the citizen, Aristotle’s definition, 243
citizenship, see also victims of citizenship
as colonial concept, 71
comparison of citizenships, 99
comparison with residence, , 29
comparison with statelessness, 75
concept of,
connection with political participation, 11
determining criteria,
dimensions of worth, 288
discrimination inherent in, 103
dramatic institutional changes, 284
as effective tool for preservation of global inequalities, 94
existing practices of citizenship law within liberal democratic societies, 345
first multilateral international convention on, 168
global industry, 307
heritability, 29
hierarchy of value, 289
hypocrisy and randomness behind the concept of, ,
international law of,
Kälin and Kochenov model,
multilateral treaties imposing limitations on deprivation of,
nationalist flavour of contemporary literature, 11
outcomes of seriously contesting the institution, 107
racist concept, 103
relaxing of ancestral basis for allocating, 152
vs rights,
rights of, 84
state sovereignty and,
and the preservation of inequalities, 77
traditional understanding of, 240
trivialisation of the status, 85
victims of,
citizenship acquisition, global rise in enabling legislation,
Citizenship Act (Republic of Turkey), 415
‘citizenship and residence planning’, coining of the term, 276
citizenship by investment (CBI), , see also investor programmes; residence by investment (RBI)
abuse of, examples, 116
concept of, 26, ,
concerns of states and international organizations about the practice, 109
consequences of inadequate security controls, 156
contentious history, 485
criticisms, ,
dilution of nobility,
investment migration as neoliberal citizenship,
of merit-based migration,
definition, 250
definition, OECD, 315
EC focus on security risks,
estimated worth of the global industry, 307
EU focus on security risks,
examples of,
as instrumental citizenship,
interest in the phenomenon,
key role of service providers,
Lim’s critique,
objective, 154
presented as sacrilege, 99
price competition in Caribbean states, 156
proliferation of CBI programmes, 109
residency requirements, 237
scholarly criticism in the light of international law, 112
‘streetlight effect’ in commentary on,
subnational jurisdictions and,
sustainability perspective, 138
‘who belongs’ vs ‘who should get in’,
citizenship by investment programmes (CIP), concept of, 35
citizenship premium,
Clinton, Hillary, 227
Cohen-Eliya, Moshe, 97
Colombia, 281
colonial perspectives, see also coloniality of citizenship
post-war decolonization process,
unequal institution of modern citizenship,
coloniality of citizenship,
accumulation of capital at the heart of the global economy and,
citizenship through a Southern lens,
defining coloniality, 261
Dred Scott case, 266
global mobility and, 275
Haitian revolution and,
in Latin America,
and nationality rankings,
post-independence definition of national citizenship in Latin America, 268
privileges awarded by Global North citizenships, 274
UK’s treatment of the Windrush families,
commercialisation of citizenship, victims of citizenship and,
commodification of citizenship,
citizenship as key to global inequality,
as illustration of coloniality, 274
new opportunity structure,
ancestry-based external citizenship, , 307
citizenship by investment,
ethnicity-based external citizenship,
objections to, ,
pertinent trends, 290
preferential citizenship-and-immigration policies, 298
responses to, 307
Commonwealth, benefits of citizenship of a member state, 275
The Communist Manifesto (Marx), 226
Comoros
discretionary economic citizenship practices, 32
rejection of Comoros passports by states, 158
conditional citizenship, rise of,
Connell, John, 282
Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women (CEDAW), 170
Convention on the Reduction of Statelessness (1961), 126,
Cook, Geoff, 524
Cook Islands, relationship with New Zealand,
corruption
Canadian attitudes towards, 497
Chinese concerns, 124
influence of media coverage, 508
in Maltese institutions, 500
motivational,
purchase of political power and,
UN convention against, 122
counter-terrorist financing (CTF), 486
Covid-19, 69
criminality, revocation of citizenship for
accusation and conviction,
recent examples,
Croatia, co-ethnic citizenship policy, 300
‘culture of justification’, 97
customer due diligence (CDD), internationally accepted norms, 486
Cyprus
approval of passports to PEPs, 500
cost of citizenship, 38
deprivation of nationality clauses, 418
dismissal of claims that passports are for sale, 400
due diligence procedure, , 501
economic comparison with Malta, 462
impact of regulatory competition, 456
impact of the Euro crisis, 440
investment migration industry, 237
lowering of investment required for citizenship, 458
nationality of investment residence permit holders, 453
potential security risk, 402
privileged naturalisation, 178
property ownership requirements, 430
residence requirements, 34
residential property investment model, 385
revocation of citizenship provision, 127,
Russian community, 50
social welfare protections, 58
tax residence status, 131
visa-free access to other countries, 362
De la Court, Allard,
decolonisation, impact on citizenship rights, 92
de-indigenization, 269
Democratic Republic of Germany, 189
de-nationalization and re-nationalization of citizenship, 242
deprivation of citizenship/nationality, see also revocation of citizenship
Antigua & Barbuda, 431
criminal convictions and, , 429
Cyprus, 427
due diligence and, 135
EU limitations, 115
fraud and, 172
Grenada, 426
Lihua Tian case, 431
limitations imposed by multilateral treaties, 111
mitigation of statelessness,
as protective measure for CBI programmes, 126
strict non-discrimination approach and, 102
Turkey, 424
US Supreme Court ruling, 430
vulnerability of CBI applicants to,
Dessalines, Jean-Jacques, 265
Dicey, Albert Venn, 91
discretionary economic citizenship, 31
discrimination, inherent in citizenship, 103
‘display of wealth’ investment options,
policy design, 384
Dominica
benefits of Commonwealth membership, 275
deprivation of nationality clause, 418
Hurricane Maria and, 371
Jordanian family acquires citizenship of, 109
potential security risk, 402
residence requirements, 34
revocation of citizenship provision, 424
statelessness considerations, 433
WTO sanctions against, 529
Douglas, Denzil, 490
dual citizenship
comparison to bigamy, 295
countries accepted by,
countries which changed their laws to permit, 284
ethnicity-based,
impact of the permissive shift, 308
increased tolerance, 111,
non-resident citizenship and, 297
Nottebohm case and, 113
potential costs of, 307
women and, 295
Dubai, 74
due diligence
Canada,
comparison with SKN,
Kevin Sun case,
criticisms of EU’s approach,
EU report and OECD recommendations,
governance and accountability requirements, 506
investment migration and the importance of,
Malta’s response to EU concerns, 503
need for expansion,
procedures,
requirements for investor programmes,
Saint Kitts and Nevis,
comparison with Canada,
tax evasion, EU and OECD combating schemes, 504
transparency standards,
Durkheim, Émile, , 258
East Timor, independent status, 517
economic potential of investment migration,
economics of investor programmes, ,
‘display of wealth’ options,
the financial transaction itself,
investment options,
macroeconomic outcomes,
methodological challenges,
non-refundable payments,
private sector business,
residential property investments, 393
emerging economies, generation of wealth and, 40
Empire Windrush, and UK’s treatment of Windrush families,
empires, replacement by nation-states, 226
entrepreneur programmes, vs investor programmes, 381
entrepreneurial/business visa, 31
ethnicity-based external citizenship,
EU citizenship
the CBI market and, 38
demand for,
gatekeeping role of the ECJ, 181
introduction of the concept, 167
investor interest in acquiring, 456
as key draw of investor programmes, 49
limitations on the deprivation of, 115
Malta’s investor programmes and,
mitigation of criminality and, 179
and national competences of Member States, 190
populations of eligible individuals living outside the EU, 303
potential for inheritance, 179
relationship between nationalities of member states and,
relationship with national citizenship,
residence and, 200
rights accruing from, , 276
roots of, 257
routes to acquisition, 164
UK nationals’ loss of, 187
Euro crisis
effects in Greece and Cyprus, 65,
impact on Member States,
investor programmes against the background of FDI and,
European Commission, investor programmes, due diligence procedure,
European Court of Justice (ECJ), on the principle of state sovereignty in citizenship, 114
European Union (EU), see also individual Member States
annual revenue generated by investor programmes, estimate of, 463
benefits of holding citizenship in a member state,
concerns with investment migration programmes in Member States, 485
constraints on incentivising FDI,
criticism of Moldovan CBI programme, 485
dual nationality and, 93
due diligence report and OECD recommendations,
evidence of countries reacting to the market when setting RBI prices, 40
foreign direct investment and investment migration programmes in, , see also foreign direct investment (FDI)
legal limitations on national autonomy,
proportionality principle,
sincere cooperation principle,
member states’ immigration law reforms, 194
membership and settlement freedom, 293
nationality domain,
populations eligible for EU citizenship, 303
position on CBI practices, 112
principle of conferral,
Quality of Nationality Index and, 277
recommendation that Member States “phase out” investment migration programmes, 110
requirement for investors to maintain private health insurance, 58
residence domain,
side-effects of investor migration, addressing,
tax evasion, EU and OECD combating schemes, 504
value of EU investor programmes,
exclusion
relationship of investment citizenship and, 8
extradition procedures,
Fahrmeir, Andreas, 228
Falkland Islands, 519
family members
inclusion in applications for investor programmes, 42
Favell, Adrian, 87
Federal Republic of Germany, 189
Federated States of Micronesia (FSM), sovereign status, 517
Feinstein, Diane, 335
financial investment, policy design options,
Finer, Samuel, 244
flag independence, definition, 282
foreign direct investment (FDI)
comparison with investor programmes, 452
definition, 441
economic benefits, 441
EU competence transfer, 445
investment migration programmes against the background of FDI and the Euro crisis,
mode of entry into the host economy, 441
net inflows, 443
regulatory competition of EU Member States, 436
and the proliferation of investment migration programmes in Europe,
types of investment, 447
value of EU investor programmes,
demand side of the market and,
as means to attract foreign capital,
regulatory competition as a race to the bottom,
France
business visa programme, 31
citizenships granted for exceptional talent, 254
exclusion of St. Domingue’s racialised population from French citizenship, 272
nationality ranking, 279
net outflows of HNWIs, 364
fraud
fraudulent acquisition of passports in Bulgaria, 116
permissibility of statelessness in the case of,
revocation of citizenship for false representation and,
in US business visa programme, 391
French National Court of Asylum Law, 124
Fu Yaobo, 426
Galizia, Daphne Caruana, 499
Ganty, Sarah, 87
Gaza Strip, Israel’s artificial island proposal, 510
genuine link doctrine
assessment challenges, 386
and autonomy in matters of nationality,
ECJ ruling, 168
criticisms, 183
deviation of CBI from, 112
elasticity, 153
European Commission’s adherence to, 121
examples of evidence, 386
exclusion of persons from benefit of diplomatic protection, 153
implication, 346
legal derivation, 112
legal requirement, 114
Maltese investor programmes and,
Micheletti case and, 167
myth of,
practical importance, 115
not required for attribution of nationality under international or EU law, 179
scholarly debate, 113
Georgia, Russian invasion, 301
Germany, 442
criteria for determining citizenship, 230
definition of ‘nationals’, 189
entrepreneurial migration programme, 33
experiences of loss of citizenship, 84
Nürnberg laws, 85
preferential citizenship-and-immigration policies, 298
reform of immigration legislation, 194
Gibney, Matthew J, 418
The Gift Relationship (Titmuss), 355
global capitalist dynamics, colonial institution of citizenship and,
Global Compact for Migration (UN), 467
global financial crisis, impact on inward foreign investment in Europe, 436, see also Euro crisis; foreign direct investment (FDI)
global inequality
CBI industry and,
citizenship and residence rights as vehicles of,
citizenship as key to,
as driver of demand for dual citizenship, 305
GDP of OECD vs Sub-Saharan and South Asian countries, 286
key nexus of, 8
global South, European invention, 260
global wealth, uneven pace of growth, 74
Gonsalves, Ralph, 335
government donation, countries requiring as part of a qualifying package, 27
Greece
acquisition of permanent residence, 196
co-ethnic citizenship policy, 300
demand for RBI, 45
financing options, 60
impact of the Euro crisis, 439
minimum investment amount, 39
nationality of investment residence permit holders, 452
social welfare protections, 58
sovereign debt crisis, 65
tax residence status, 131
Grenada
benefits of Commonwealth membership, 275
CBI programme, 32
deprivation of nationality clause, 418
non-refundable payment requirement, 383
Guadeloupe, 275
Guatemala, and the Nottebohm case, 112
Guernsey, residency requirements, 531
Hague Convention on Certain Questions Relating to the Conflict of Nationality Laws (1930), 142, , 411
Harper, Stephen, 490
Harris, Timothy, 491
Hellman, Deborah, 329
Henley & Partners, 276
Henley & Partners, Passport Index, 288
Hidalgo, Javier,
high net worth individuals (HNWIs)
defining, 363
estimated percentage holding second passports/dual nationality, 364
risk profile, 487
Hipa, Richard, 532
historical perspectives
acquiring citizenship in early modern Europe,
community perspective,
seventeenth-century Amsterdam,
citizenship and community,
citizenship for sale in pre-modern Europe,
citizenship in the ancient world,
citizenship in the Middle Ages, 225
discrimination against women, 219
emergence of the modern nation-state, 225
political rights,
religion, as obstacle to acquisition of citizenship, 218
replacement of empires by nation-states, 226
traditional understanding of citizenship, 240
Horne, Gerald, 264
human rights
citizenship rights and, , 180
gradual extension of, 86
increasing importance of, 91
investor citizenship and, 352
‘offshoring’ practices and, 527
and revocation of citizenship, 411,
worldwide acceptance, 74
Hun Sen, 500
Hungary
co-ethnic citizenship policy,
Hungarian Residency Bond
anti-migration rhetoric vs preferential system,
background,
birth of,
circumvention of normal procedure in rules adoption, 473
described as textbook example of state corruption, 483
designated companies
choice of,
status of,
economic perspective,
investors,
legal structure and critical elements,
state capture and, ,
impact of the financial crisis, 440
investment options, 27
naturalisation of non-residents of Hungarian ancestry, 401
numbers acquiring ancestry-based dual citizenship, 303
plebiscitary leader democracy, 466
RBI programme, freezing of, 45
systemic corruption, 466
immigrant investor visa programmes, and the roots of investment citizenship policies,
independence, subnational jurisdictions and, 511,
institutional malpractice, and revocation of citizenship, 417
instrumental citizenship
citizenship by investment,
civil association vs enterprise association,
criticisms, 245
legal individualism,
“Olympic Citizenship”, 254
Roman legal model vs Greek political model, 240,
trend toward in (neo)liberal societies, 240
international law
of citizenship,
and investment citizenship, 137–160
limitations,
on national autonomy,
and Russia’s mass naturalization of residents of Crimea, 150
International Monetary Fund (IMF), Antigua’s challenge, 15
investable net wealth, examples of, 363
investment citizenship, see also investor programmes
abuse of schemes, examples of, 116
acquisition of citizenship, examples of, 109
analysis of international law,
comparison with naturalisation, 346
due diligence procedures,
in EU Member States,
extradition procedures,
international law and,
limitations,
ironies of State sovereignty and,
market discipline,
naturalisation, consent requirements, , 158
policy roots,
potential negative side-effects, 183
relationship with exclusion, 8
revenues as significant share of GDP, 137
security considerations,
state sovereignty and,
and tax planning,
as threat to socio-philosophical foundations of citizenship as an institution, 137
valuation metric, 154
violation of consent condition, 138
vulnerability to abuse,
investment migration, 223
Canadian scheme, 10
commissions and,
component parts, 29
contemporary scene
CBI demand,
drivers of demand, 40
methodological issues,
motives for investment,
RBI demand,
supply,
defining,
differences between citizenships as driver of the industry, 99
economic impact,
investment options,
macroeconomic outcomes,
methodological challenges,
economic potential,
empirical developments and methodological issues,
empirical research,
EU competences,
conferral of powers,
nationality domain,
residence domain,
side-effects of investor migration, addressing,
EU recommendation that Member States “phase out” programmes for, 110
European Commission’s 2019 Report on, 101
as an expression of national autonomy in matters of nationality,
fees and, 61
financing and, 60
as a growing phenomenon,
the industry, ,
and inequality,
moving from North to South,
and political membership, 11
possibilities for misuse, 15
programme types
citizenship by investment,
discretionary economic citizenship, 31
entrepreneurial/business visa, 31
residence by investment, 31
relationship with migration per se,
residency requirements, 237
secondary spending and, 58
social welfare perspective, 57
taxation and,
as threat to the institution of citizenship, 238
transnational lives of investment migrants, 10
Investment Migration Council (IMC), 157
investor programmes
against the background of FDI and the Euro crisis,
comparison of economic crisis and,
comparison with FDI, 452
criticisms, ,
definition, 437
due diligence requirements,
economic impact, examples of, 388
entrepreneur programmes vs, 381
estimate of annual revenue generated in the EU, 463
nationality of investment residence permit holders,
non-economic benefits,
potential for success,
potential negative externalities, 462
proliferation in Europe,
and subnational jurisdictions,
variety of financial transactions required by, 447
Iran, 118
Ireland
Anti-Tax Avoidance Directive and, 504
discretionary economic citizenship practices, 32
financing options, 60
impact of the Euro crisis, 439
investment options, 27
investor programme, non-refundable payment requirement, 383
minimum investment amount, 40
RBI programme, 31
social welfare protections, 58
Isin, Engin, 83
Islamic State, 512
Jamaica, 273
James I, 318
Japan, prohibition of dual citizenship, 297
Jaworski, Peter, 338
Jho, Low Taek (aka Jho Low), 492
Johnson, Boris, 59
Johnson, Lyndon, 226
Johnston, Laura, 353
jus soli citizenship, 152
Katz, Yisrael, 510
Kelsen, Hans,
Kerr, Sandy A, 512
Keyssar, Alexander, 226
Khoury, Atiya, 479
Körösényi, András,
Korzeniewicz, Roberto Patricio, 267
Kurdi, Alan, 325
labour mobility, benefits, 327
Latin America, see also individual countries
naturalisation by operation of law,
post-independence definition of national citizenship in, 268
push factors for HNWI migration, 369
Latvia
experiences of loss of citizenship,
impact of the Euro crisis, 440
investor programme, non-refundable payment requirement, 383
minimum investment amount, 39
nationality of investment residence permit holders, 453
residence requirements, 34
legal individualism,
legitimacy of selling citizenship,
and the acquisition of citizenship,
the disadvantaged and, 231
economic value of potential immigrants and, 234
and the emergence of the modern nation-state, 225
and the investment migration industry,
political rights and,
residency requirements and, 237
and rights associated with citizenship,
rights of citizens and,
sacred conception of citizenship and,
liberalism, liberty and, 246
Liberia, establishment of the colony, 265
Liechtenstein, citizenship acquisition legislation, 1
Lim, Desiree,
Lisbon Treaty,
Lithuania, impact of the Euro crisis, 440
Lockward, Alanna, 265
London, access to citizenship in the sixteenth century, 217
Lorde, Audre, 280
L’Ouverture, Toussaint, 263
Maastricht Treaty (1992), 185
Macedonia, citizenship industry, 306
Malaysia
minimum investment amount, 39
Malta
commission system, 61
cost of citizenship,
economic comparison with Cyprus, 462
EU association as driver of citizenship value, 158
European Parliament 2014 Resolution on, 101
Galizia murder,
international mobility of passport holders, 251
investment migration industry, 237
investor programmes, 15, 32, 34, 37, 114, 134, 140
aims according to the website, 400
comments on, 397
drivers of demand, 49
European Parliament’s concerns, 328
EU’s challenge, 138, ,
historically available programmes, 30
legality of, 134
macroeconomic outcomes, 66
methodological issues, 41
political perspective,
residency requirements, 141
valuation metric, 154
privileged naturalisation, 178
rejection rate, 41
residence requirements, 34
residential property investment model, 385
statelessness considerations, 433
Yemeni family acquires citizenship of, 109
market imperialism, 338
market relations, five main norms, 347
markets, moral limits of,
Markets Without Limits (Brennan & Jaworski), 338
Marshall, TH, 98
Martinique, 275
Marx, Karl, 226
Mau, Steffen, 291
Mavelli, Luca, 318
McConnell, Allan, 378
Mexico, 269, 271
naturalisation by operation of law, 143
rebellion in (1810), 265
Zapatistas’ uprising, 271
military service, and the acquisition of citizenship, 236
Miller, David, 311
mobility
value of for investors, 28
Moghadam, Alizera, 490
money laundering
anti-money laundering regulation requirements, 117
EU efforts to combat,
“Vancouver Model”, 496
morality of selling citizenship,
Moran, Timothy Patrick, 267
Mueller, John, 12
Muller, Karis, 282
multiple citizenships, permissive shift in relation to, 295
naked transactions, risks of,
Napoleon, 263
Nariskin, Sergey, 479
national autonomy in matters of nationality
codification of the principle of ‘national autonomy’, 161
genuine link doctrine and,
internal aspect vs international, 165
international human rights law and, 170
legal perspectives of EU investment migration and,
limitations
EU law,
proportionality principle,
sincere cooperation principle,
international law,
‘membership of the club’ and,
and the Micheletti case, 167
and the Nottebohm case,
‘nationals’, definition of the term, 189
naturalisation
comparison with investment citizenship, 346
conditional citizenship and,
consent requirements, , 158
dual citizenship and,
in early modern England,
eligibility of immigrant investors, 302
equality and,
in exchange for military service, 353
exemption from requirements provided by investment or donation, 109
facilitated,
fairness and, 358
fast-tracking for Olympic talent, 245
functions served by, 102
historical perspective, 209
‘integration’ rationale, , 101
by investment vs citizenship by birth, 354
non-consensual
Russia’s mass naturalization of residents of Crimea, 150
normal conditions for, 401
by operation of law
Argentina, 143
Brazil, 143
children, 145
Latin America,
Mexico, 143
Peru, 143
women, 145
physical presence requirements, 32
potential for confidentiality, 9
practices in EU Member States, 187
privileged, , 168,
revocation of citizenship by, potential for,
as route to citizenship, , 255
of slaves in ancient Rome, 245
stakeholder citizenship and,
and the potential for discrimination, 418
and third country benefits,
volitional, principle of, 17
Ndvolu-Gatsheni, Sabelo, 260
Netherlands
buying citizenship in seventeenth-century Amsterdam, ,
dramatic increase in Surinamese emigration to, 273
nationality legislation,
RBI programme, 31
Netrebko, Anna, 330
New York Convention on the Nationality of Married Women (1957), 169
New York Convention on the Reduction of Statelessness (1961), 169
Nicaragua, discretionary economic citizenship practices, 32
Nigeria, demand for CBI, 40
Night Watch (Rembrandt), 220
Niue
keeping for Niueans, 533
rejection of independence, 516
relationship with New Zealand,
residency requirements,
non-refundable payments,
policy design options, 383
North Korea, 118
Northern Macedonia, CBI programme, 32
“Olympic Citizenship”, Lim’s critique, 329
Orbán, Viktor,
Organization of Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD)
due diligence recommendations,
tax evasion, EU and OECD combating schemes, 504
Orlando, Anthony, 372
Ostrom, Elinor, 322
Otherness, institutionalization of, 268
Ownbey, Carolyn, 513
Paine, Thomas, 254
Palau, sovereign status, 517
Palermo Convention, 122
Panama
discretionary economic citizenship practices, 32
RBI programme, participants’ nationalities, 46
Pavlov, Sergei, 492
Peace of Augsburg (1555), 225
Pericles, 245
personal commitment
policy design options,
requirements,
‘personhood’, replacement of citizenship by, , 108
Peru, naturalisation by operation of law, 143
physical presence requirements, 386
Pilatus Bank, 500
Pildes, Richard, 349
Pocock, John G.A., 245
policy performance of investor programmes,
conflict between political and economic objectives,
defining success and failure,
economic perspective,
‘display of wealth’ options,
the financial transaction itself,
investments in residential property, 393
non-refundable payments,
personal commitment requirements,
private sector business,
policy design options,
‘display of wealth’ policies, 384
financial investment,
investment in residential property, 385
non-refundable cash payments, 383
personal investment,
private sector business, 384
status on offer,
political perspectives,
Maltese programme, 404
residence requirements and citizenship,
risks of naked transactions,
security threats and undesirable actors,
political participation, of investor citizens, in selected countries,
politics of investor programmes,
Maltese programme, 404
residence requirements and citizenship,
risks of naked transactions,
security threats and undesirable actors,
Porat, Iddo, 97
Portugal
acquisition of permanent residence, 196
immigrant investor visa programme, 302
impact of the Euro crisis, 439
job creation requirements, 391
nationality of investment residence permit holders, 452
RBI programme, 31
residence requirements, 34
tax residence status, 132
prejudicial behaviour, and revocation of citizenship,
premium citizenships, 276
Preuß, Ulrich, 247
Prinsen, Gerard, 511
prison-cell upgrades, 252
private health insurance, EU requirement for investors to maintain, 58
Puerto Rico, ,
rejection of independence, 516
Quebec
immigrant investment programme (QIIP), 495
Quentin-Baxter, Alison, 519
queue-jumping, examples of, 338
“racialized citizenship”, Athenian citizenship as precursor of, 245
refugee, definition, 232
regulatory competition
of EU Member States, 436
as a race to the bottom,
types of regulatory effects, 455
religion, as obstacle to acquisition of citizenship, 218
Ren Biao, 121,
Republic of the Marshall Islands (RMI), sovereign status, 517
residence, comparison with citizenship, , 29
residence by investment (RBI), 31, see also investor programmes
concept of, 26
counting issues, 36
drivers, 36
minimum investment amounts, 39
OECD definition, 315
residence requirements
Antigua & Barbuda, 34
Australia, 34
Canada, 34
citizenship by investment, 237
Cyprus, 34
Dominica, 34
Guernsey, 531
investment migration, 237
Latvia, 34
and legitimacy of selling citizenship, 237
Mauritius, 34
Niue,
political perspectives,
Portugal, 34
Saint Kitts and Nevis, 34
Turks and Caicos Islands, 532
United Kingdom, 34
United States, 34
revocation of citizenship, , see also deprivation of citizenship/nationality
conditional citizenship and,
conditions for,
criminality
accusation and conviction,
recent examples,
defence of,
denaturalisation provisions in CIP-operating states,
examples,
fraud and false representation,
human rights perspective, 411,
institutional malpractice and, 417
Lihua Tian case, , 431
prejudicial behaviour,
procedures,
and the proportionality principle, 422
US court cases, 416
‘war-against terror’ and, 410
“Rights of Colored Men to Suffrage, Citizenship, and Trial by Jury” (Yates), 266
Roman model of citizenship, vs Greek model, 240,
Romania
CBI programme, 32
co-ethnic citizenship policy, 300
numbers acquiring ancestry-based dual citizenship, 303
residence permits, 198
Russia
co-ethnic citizenship policy, 301
increase in number of billionaires, 275
increase in number of millionaires, 450
mass naturalisation of residents of Crimea, 150
net outflows of HNWIs, 364
push factors for HNWI migration,
Ruyter, Michiel de, 213
Saint Kitts and Nevis (SKN)
CBI programme, 32
demand for, 44
due diligence,
reforms, 491
economic contribution, 529
EU’s concerns,
fees as % of GDP, 389
impact of Canada’s withdrawal of visa-free access, 156
initiation, 275
introduction, 528
IPSA International review, 490
macroeconomic outcomes, 66
non-refundable payment requirement, 383
reliance on visa-free access to the EU, 155
US advisory against, 490
due diligence, comparison with Canada,
exclusion of investor citizens from the franchise, 12
Hurricane Relief Fund, 400
investment migration industry, 237
investor citizenship programme, economic benefits, 15
net inflows of HNWIs, 364
residence requirements, 34
revocation of citizenship provision, 424
Saint Christopher and Nevis Citizenship Act (1984), 488
terminates licence of CBI processing agency in Dubai, 417
visa-free access to other countries, 362
Saint Lucia
Saint-Domingue (Haiti), revolution, 226,
Samoa, 527
Sarmiento, Daniel, 171
Satz, Debra, 339
Schengen Area, visa-free access to as key draw of CBI programmes, 49
Schiller, Friedrich, 254
Schinkel, Willem, 87
Scott, Dred and Harriet, 266
Second World War, 1
security risks of CBI, EC focus,
security threats and undesirable actors,
September 11, 2001 terrorist attacks, 488
sex, non-discrimination on the basis of, in the contemporary world, 74
Shariff, Ahmed, 516
Sharpston, Eleanor (Advocate General), 2
Siedentop, Larry, 77
Singapore
business experience requirements, 395
business visa programme, 31
private sector investment opportunities, 384
Sitharaman, Nirmala, 116
slavery
Haitian revolution and, , 265
immorality, 78
legacy of in the US,
prohibition of selling oneself into, 350
Slovenia, experiences of loss of citizenship, 84
small island jurisdictions, failures of independence referenda, 516
social equality, Walzer’s pluralist theory, 340
Spain
immigrant investor visa programme, 302
impact of the Euro crisis, 439
investment options, 63
numbers acquiring ancestry-based dual citizenship, 303
preferential citizenship-and-immigration policies, 298
St. Lucia, 265
St. Vincent, 273
‘stakeholder citizenship’,
personhood and, 98
statelessness
comparison with citizenship, 75
considerations in revocation of citizenship, 412,
definition, 432
forbidding of loss of nationality resulting in, 169
human rights perspective, 126,
mitigation of,
New York Convention on the Reduction of Statelessness (1961), 169
principle of proportionality and, 434
revocation of citizenship resulting in, permissibility in the case of fraud,
status on offer, policy design options,
Stephan, Beatriz González, 268
Stronach, Frank, 343
subnational jurisdictions,
attractions, 530
benefits of high quality citizenship,
benefits of the status, 512
competitive advantage,
concept of,
earmarking of territory for specialized services, 524
and the exploitation of tax regimes, 526
importance of citizenship and, ,
independence and, 511,
investor citizenship and,
Israel’s artificial island proposal for Gaza, 510
Sun, Kevin,
Swan, John, 518
Tafira, Kenneth, 260
talent-based migration, Lim’s critique,
tax evasion
EU and OECD combating schemes, 504
tax planning, investment citizenship and,
territory, importance of,
terrorism, combating of financing requirements (CFT), 117
Thiel, Peter, 31
Thwaites, Rayner, 150
Tian, Lihua, , 431
“ticket scalping”, 252
Tilly, Charles, 225
Tocqueville, Alexis de, 225
Tokelau, relationship with New Zealand, 523
Tolstoy, Leo, 82
Torpey, John, 76
Tóth, Judit, 470
tracking migration of the wealthy,
defining the relevant population,
distributive effects of immigration,
impact on property prices,
investable net wealth, examples of, 363
investment migration programmes,
mobility corridors, 364
origin countries of wealthy people on the move, 364
preferred destination countries,
influencing factors,
push factors for emigration,
sources of wealth, 362
Tragedy of the Commons (Hardin), 322
Transkei, 85
Transnational Organised Crime Convention (2000), 122
Tristan da Cunha, 518
Trouillot, Michel-Rolph, 264
Tully, James, 86
Ukraine, and Russia’s ‘passportization’ policy, 301
United Kingdom (UK)
benefits from investment residence scheme, 15
British Nationality Act (1948), 270
British Social Attitudes survey on ‘Attitudes to Immigration’, 331
definition of the term ‘nationals’, 189
educational opportunities for the children of the wealthy, 368
Empire Windrush, 270
experiences of loss of citizenship, 84
financing options, 60
Hong Kong residents and, 278
investor programme, physical presence requirement, 387
investor visa auction recommendation, 397
minimum investment amount, 39
net outflows of HNWIs, 364
potential security risk, 402
RBI programme, 31
reform of immigration legislation, 194
residence requirements, 34
tax residence policy, 394
treatment of the Windrush families,
Turkish Businessperson visa, 42
UK nationals’ loss of EU citizenship, 187
United Nations
Convention against Corruption (2003), 122
Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women (CEDAW), 170
Convention on the Reduction of Statelessness (1961), 126,
High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR), 75
Human Rights Charter, 421
United States (US)
American Colonization Society, 265
business visa programme, 31
citizenship industry, 306
“Dreamers”, 230
enfranchisement, 226
illegal immigrants, economic contribution, 233
implementation of birthright citizenship, 265
incentives to attract FDI, 444
investment options, 64
language of immigration law,
legal battles for citizenship rights, 266
military service as route to citizenship, 236
minimum investment amount, 39
net inflows of HNWIs, 364
post-war extension of citizenship rights and status to populations of Caribbean colonies, 273
premise of citizenship in, 262
private-enterprise investments with job creation requirements, 384
protests against the systematic infringements of the rights of indigenous peoples, 281
residence requirements, 34
revolution, 226
Voting Rights Act (1965), 226
War of 1812 between Great Britain and, 143
value degradation, as argument against commodification of citizenship,
Vanuatu, 528
discretionary economic citizenship practices, 32
due diligence procedure, 120
historically available programmes, 30
INTERPOL membership, 120
investment options, 62
revocation of citizenship, examples,
Venice, access to full citizenship, 217
Venugopal, Rajesh, 323
victims of citizenship,
the concept,
citizenship vs rights,
and the commercialisation of citizenship,
comparison of citizenships, 99
and core functions of citizenship,
ethnicity, 71
exclusion from the world, 89
invisibility of in citizenship studies,
morality of selling citizenship,
necessity of for sales of citizenship, 73
and the role of ‘personhood’, , 108
Walzer, Michael,
‘war-against terror’, and revocation of citizenship, 410
wealth
competition between countries to lure the wealthy, 1
Weber, Max, 225
Westphalian function of citizenship, 286
Windrush families, UK’s treatment of,
women
Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women (CEDAW), 170
denial of political rights in revolutionary France, 262
and dual citizenship, 295
enfranchisement in the US and France, 226
limitations on citizenship rights, 86
limitations on effects of marriage with respect to nationality, 169
naturalisation by operation of law, 145
New York Convention on the Nationality of Married Women (1957), 169
recognition as minority group, 94
wrong distribution, as argument against commodification of citizenship,
Yates, William, 266
