The Natural History of Primate Spatial Cognition

doi:10.1017/9781108955836.009

9 - The Natural History of Primate Spatial Cognition

An Organismic Perspective

Published online by Cambridge University Press: 28 July 2022

Charles R. Menzel and

Ken Sayers

Edited by

Bennett L. Schwartz and

Michael J. Beran

Show author details

Bennett L. Schwartz: Affiliation:
Florida International University
Michael J. Beran: Affiliation:
Georgia State University

Book contents

Get access

Summary

We adapt a method from mammalian comparative biology to study spatial cognition in relation to lifestyle. We compare members of the family Pitheciidae (titi monkeys, sakis, bearded sakis, and uakaris) to one another and to two cebid relatives, squirrel monkeys and owl monkeys. We review experimental studies that directly compare titis and squirrel monkeys in spatial tasks and social settings. Titis occupy small, defended home ranges and live in small groups comprising an adult male-female pair and young. In contrast, bearded sakis, uakaris, and squirrel monkeys, occupy large, undefended home ranges, move rapidly, and live in large groups. White-faced sakis illustrate an intermediate condition. Lab studies show that titis and squirrel monkeys differ in their use of visual information in travel tasks and in responsiveness to environmental novelty. Proximate sources of titis’ cautious, sedentary lifestyle include attention to contextual detail, preferences for familiar pathways and areas, behavioral inhibition, parasympathetic dominance, and adult heterosexual attachment bonds. A speculative scenario for the evolution of titis within the Pitheciidae is offered, in which spatial cognition is included as a factor. Further potential applications of this approach within the primate order are considered. We maintain that a holistic, biological, and evolutionary methodology is most likely to elucidate the underpinnings and form of complex cognition.

Keywords

titi monkey callicebus saki monkey pitheciidae squirrel monkey macaque chimpanzee comparative method monogamy territoriality

Information

Type: Chapter
Information: Primate Cognitive Studies , pp. 188 - 237

DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/9781108955836.009 [Opens in a new window]

Publisher: Cambridge University Press

Print publication year: 2022

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

Book purchase

Temporarily unavailable

References

Andrews, M. W. (1986). Contrasting approaches to spatially distributed resources by Saimiri and Callicebus. In Else, J. G. & Lee, P. C. (Eds.), Proceedings of the 10th Congress of the International Primatological Society: Vol. 3. Primate ontogeny, cognition, and social behaviour (pp. 79-86). Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar

Andrews, M. W. (1988a). Selection of food sites by Callicebus moloch and Saimiri sciureus under spatially and temporally varying food distribution. Learning and Motivation, 19, 254–268.Google Scholar

Andrews, M. W. (1988b). Spatial strategies of oriented travel in Callicebus moloch and Saimiri sciureus. Animal Learning & Behavior, 16, 429–435.CrossRef Google Scholar

Ankel-Simons, F. (2007). Primate anatomy: An introduction. Academic Press.Google Scholar

Anzelc, A. (2009). The foraging and travel patterns of white-faced sakis in Brownsberg Nature Park, Suriname: Preliminary evidence for goal-directed foraging behavior. Master’s thesis, Kent State University.Google Scholar

Anzenberger, G., Mendoza, S. P., & Mason, W. A. (1986). Comparative studies of social behavior in Callicebus and Saimiri: Behavioral and physiological responses of established pairs to unfamiliar pairs. American Journal of Primatology, 11, 37–51.Google Scholar

Aruguete, M. S., Lyons, D. M., Mason, W. A., & Mendoza, S. P. (1998). Reactions of adult and immature squirrel monkeys to intergroup exposure. Zoo Biology, 17, 519–524.3.0.CO;2-O>CrossRef Google Scholar

Aston-Jones, G., Rajkowski, J., & Cohen, J. (2000). Locus coeruleus and regulation of behavioral flexibility and attention. Progress in Brain Research, 126, 165–182.CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Beale, C. M. (2007). The behavioral ecology of disturbance responses. International Journal of Comparative Psychology, 20, 111–120.Google Scholar

Bicca-Marques, J. C., & Heymann, E. W. (2013). Ecology and behavior of titi monkeys (genus Callicebus). In Veiga, L. M., Barnett, A. A., Ferrari, S. F., & Norconk, M. A. (Eds.), Evolutionary biology and conservation of titis, sakis, and uakaris (pp. 196–207). Cambridge University Press.CrossRef Google Scholar

Boinski, S. (1994). Affiliation patterns among male Costa Rican squirrel monkeys. Behaviour, 130, 191–209.Google Scholar

Bolen, R. H., & Green, S. M. (1997). Use of olfactory cues in foraging by owl monkeys (Aotus nancymai) and capuchin monkeys (Cebus apella). Journal of Comparative Psychology, 111, 152–158.Google Scholar

Candland, D., O’Connor, K., Dresdale, L., Leshner, A., Cahill, B., & Eberhart, J. (1978). Behavior of unacquainted Saimiri troops upon encounter: A suggestive case study. Primates, 19, 643–655.CrossRef Google Scholar

Careau, V., Thomas, D., Humphries, M. M., & Réale, D. (2008). Energy metabolism and animal personality. Oikos, 117, 641–653.Google Scholar

Clutton-Brock, T. H., & Harvey, P. H. (1977). Species differences in feeding and ranging behaviour in primates. In Clutton‐Brock, T. H. (Ed.), Primate ecology: Studies of feeding and ranging behaviour in lemurs, monkeys and apes (pp. 557–584). Academic Press.Google Scholar

Cubicciotti, D. D., & Mason, W. A. (1975). Comparative studies of social behavior in Callicebus and Saimiri: Male–female emotional attachments. Behavioral Biology, 16, 185–197.Google Scholar

Cubicciotti, D. D., & Mason, W. A. (1978). Comparative studies of social behavior in Callicebus and Saimiri: Heterosexual jealousy behavior. Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology, 3, 311–322.CrossRef Google Scholar

Cubicciotti, D. D., Mendoza, S. P., Mason, W. A., & Sassenrath, E. N. (1986). Differences between Saimiri sciureus and Callicebus moloch in physiological responsiveness: Implications for behavior. Journal of Comparative Psychology, 100, 385–391.CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Cunningham, E. P. (2003). The use of memory in Pithecia pithecia’s foraging strategy. PhD Thesis, City University of New York.Google Scholar

Cunningham, E. P., & Janson, C. (2007). Integrating information about location and value of resources by white-faced saki monkeys (Pithecia pithecia). Animal Cognition, 10, 293–304.Google Scholar

da Costa, R. S., & Bicca-Marques, J. C. (2014). Owl monkeys (Aotus nigriceps and A. infulatus) follow routes instead of food-related cues during foraging in captivity. PLoS ONE, 9, e115188.Google Scholar

Darwin, C. (1859/2003). On the Origin of Species: A facsimile of the first edition. Harvard University Press.Google Scholar

Deaner, R. O., & Platt, M. L. (2003). Reflexive social attention in monkeys and humans. Current Biology, 13, 1609–1613.CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Dixson, A. F. (1983). The owl monkey (Aotus trivirgatus). In Hearn, J. P. (Ed.), Reproduction in New World primates (pp. 69–113). International Medical Publishers.Google Scholar

Dixson, A. F. (2012). Primate sexuality: Comparative studies of the prosimians, monkeys, apes, and humans. 2nd edition. Oxford University Press.Google Scholar

Donald, M. (2001). A mind so rare: The evolution of human consciousness. WW Norton & Company.Google Scholar

Ehrlich, A. (1970). Response to novel objects in three lower primates: Greater galago, slow loris, and owl monkey. Behaviour, 37, 55–63.CrossRef Google Scholar

Eisenberg, J. F. (1981). The mammalian radiations. University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar

Fernandez-Duque, E. (2007). Aotinae: Social monogamy in the only nocturnal anthropoid. In Campbell, C. J., Fuentes, A., MacKinnon, K. C., Panger, M., & Bearder, S. K. (Eds.), Primates in perspective (pp. 139–154). Oxford University Press.Google Scholar

Fernandez-Duque, E., Huck, M., Van Belle, S., & Di Fiore, A. (2020). The evolution of pair‐living, sexual monogamy, and cooperative infant care: Insights from research on wild owl monkeys, titis, sakis, and tamarins. Yearbook of Physical Anthropology, 171, 118–173.Google Scholar

Fleagle, J. G. (2013). Primate adaptation and evolution. 3rd edition. Academic Press.Google Scholar

Ford, S. M. (1994). Evolution of sexual dimorphism in body weight in platyrrhines. American Journal of Primatology, 34, 221–244.Google Scholar

Fragaszy, D. M. (1978). Contrasts in feeding behavior in squirrel and titi monkeys. In Chivers, D. J. & Herbert, J. (Eds.), Recent advances in primatology. Vol. 1: Behaviour (pp. 363–367). Academic Press.Google Scholar

Fragaszy, D. M. (1979). Titi and squirrel monkeys in a novel environment. In Erwin, J., Maple, T., & Mitchell, G. (Eds.), Captivity and behavior: Primates in breeding colonies, laboratories, and zoos (pp. 172–216). Van Nostrand.Google Scholar

Fragaszy, D. M. (1980). Comparative studies of squirrel monkeys (Saimiri) and titi monkeys (Callicebus) in travel tasks. Zeitschrift für Tierpsychologie, 54, 1–36.Google Scholar

Fragaszy, D. M. (1981). Comparative performance in discrimination learning tasks in two New World primates (Saimiri sciureus and Callicebus moloch). Animal Learning & Behavior, 9, 127–134.CrossRef Google Scholar

Fragaszy, D. M. (1986). Comparative studies of squirrel monkeys (Saimiri sciureus) and titi monkeys (Callicebus moloch): Performance on choice tasks in near space. Journal of Comparative Psychology, 100, 392–400.CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Fragaszy, D. M., & Mason, W. A. (1978). Response to novelty in Saimiri and Callicebus: Influence of social context. Primates, 19, 311–331.CrossRef Google Scholar

Fragaszy, D. M., & Mason, W. A. (1983). Comparisons of feeding behavior in captive squirrel and titi monkeys (Saimiri sciureus and Callicebus moloch). Journal of Comparative Psychology, 97, 310–326.Google Scholar

Ghiglieri, M. P. (1984). The chimpanzees of Kibale forest: A field study of ecology and social structure. Columbia University Press.Google Scholar

Gibson, J. J. (1979). The ecological approach to visual perception. Houghton Mifflin.Google Scholar

Gibson, J. J. (2002). A theory of direct visual perception. In Noe, A.T. & Boston, E. (Eds.), Vision and mind: Selected readings in the philosophy of perception (pp. 77–89). MIT Press.Google Scholar

Ginsburg, H., & Opper, S. (1979). Piaget’s theory of intellectual development. 2nd edition. Prentice-Hall.Google Scholar

Gould, L., & Sauther, M. (2007). Lemuriformes. In Campbell, C. J., Fuentes, A., MacKinnon, K. C., Panger, M., & Bearder, S. K. (Eds.), Primates in perspective (pp. 46–72). Oxford University Press.Google Scholar

Grand, T. I. (1977). Body weight: Its relation to tissue composition, segment distribution, and motor function. I. Interspecific comparisons. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 47, 211–239.CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Grand, T. I. (1978). Adaptations of tissue and limb segments to facilitate moving and feeding in arboreal folivores. In Montgomery, G.G. (Ed.), Ecology of arboreal folivores (pp. 231–241). Smithsonian Institution Press.Google Scholar

Grand, T. I. (1990). Body composition and the evolution of the Macropodidae (Potorous, Dendrolagus, and Macropus). Anatomy and embryology, 182, 85–92.Google Scholar

Grand, T. I. (1997). How muscle mass is part of the fabric of behavioral ecology in East African bovids (Madoqua, Gazella, Damaliscus, Hippotragus). Anatomy and Embryology, 195, 375–386.CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Grand, T. I., & Barboza, P. S. (2001). Anatomy and development of the koala, Phascolarctos cinereus: An evolutionary perspective on the superfamily Vombatoidea. Anatomy and Embryology, 203, 211–223.Google Scholar

Gregory, L. T. (2011). Socioecology of the Guianan bearded saki, Chiropotes sagulatus. PhD Thesis, Kent State University, Kent.Google Scholar

Gregory, T., Mullett, A., & Norconk, M. A. (2014). Strategies for navigating large areas: A GIS spatial ecology analysis of the bearded saki monkey, Chiropotes sagulatus, in Suriname. American Journal of Primatology, 76, 586–595.CrossRef Google Scholar

Harlow, H. F. (1958). The nature of love. American Psychologist, 13, 673–685.Google Scholar

Hennessy, M. B., Mendoza, S. P., Mason, W. A., & Moberg, G. P. (1995). Endocrine sensitivity to novelty in squirrel monkeys and titi monkeys: Species differences in characteristic modes of responding to the environment. Physiology & Behavior, 57, 331–338.CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Hoffman, K. A. (1998). Transition from juvenile to adult stages of development in titi monkeys (Callicebus moloch). PhD Thesis, University of California, Davis.Google Scholar

Hostetler, C. M., Hinde, K., Maninger, N., Mendoza, S. P., Mason, W. A., Rowland, D. J., … Bales, K. L. (2017). Effects of pair bonding on dopamine D1 receptors in monogamous male titi monkeys (Callicebus cupreus). American Journal of Primatology, 79, e22612.Google Scholar

Janis, I. L., & Mann, L. (1977). Decision making: A psychological analysis of conflict, choice, and commitment. Free Press.Google Scholar

Kay, R. F. (1984). On the use of anatomical features to infer foraging behavior in extinct primates. In Rodman, P. S. & Cant, J. G. H. (Eds.), Adaptations for foraging in nonhuman primates (pp. 21–53). Columbia University Press.Google Scholar

Kay, R. F., Meldrum, D. J., & Takai, M. (2013). Pitheciidae and other platyrrhine seed predators. In Veiga, L. M., Barnett, A. A., Ferrari, S. F., & Norconk, M. A. (Eds.), Evolutionary biology and conservation of titis, sakis and uacaris (pp. 3–12). Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar

Kelleher, R. T., Morse, W. H., & Herd, J. A. (1972). Effects of propranolol, phentolamine and methyl atropine on cardiovascular function in the squirrel monkey during behavioral experiments. Journal of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics, 182, 204–217.Google Scholar

Kiesling, N. M. J., Soojin, V. Y., Xu, K., Sperone, F. G., & Wildman, D. E. (2015). The tempo and mode of New World monkey evolution and biogeography in the context of phylogenomic analysis. Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution, 82, 386–399.CrossRef Google Scholar

Kinzey, W. G. (1987). A primate model for human mating systems. In Kinzey, W.G. (Ed.), The evolution of human behavior: Primate models (pp. 105–114). State University of New York Press.Google Scholar

Kummer, H. (1967). Dimensions of a comparative biology of primate groups. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 27, 357–366.Google Scholar

Mandl, I., Holderied, M., & Schwitzer, C. (2019). Spatiotemporal distribution of individuals as an indicator for the social system of Lepilemur sahamalaza. American Journal of Primatology, 81, e22984.CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Mason, W. A. (1966). Social organization of the South American monkey Callicebus moloch: A preliminary report. Tulane Studies in Zoology, 13, 23–28.Google Scholar

Mason, W. A. (1968). Use of space by Callicebus groups. In Jay, P. C. (Ed.), Primates: Studies in adaptation and variability (pp. 200–216). Rinehart and Winston.Google Scholar

Mason, W. A. (1970). Information processing and experiential deprivation: A biologic perspective. In Young, F. A. & Lindsley, D. B. (Eds.), Early experience and visual information processing in perceptual and reading disorders (pp. 302–323). National Academy of Sciences.Google Scholar

Mason, W. A. (1971). Motivational factors in psychosocial development. In Arnold, W. J. & Page, M. M. (Eds.), Nebraska symposium on motivation (pp. 33–67). University of Nebraska Press.Google Scholar

Mason, W. A. (1979). Ontogeny of social behavior. In Marler, P. & Vandenbergh, J. G. (Eds.), Handbook of behavioral neurobiology, Volume 3, social behavior and communication (pp. 1–28). Plenum Press.Google Scholar

Mason, W. A. (1980). Minding our business. American Psychologist, 35, 964–967.Google Scholar

Mason, W.A. (2002). The natural history of primate behavioral development: An organismic perspective. In Lewkowicz, D.J. & Lickliter, R. (Eds), Conceptions of development: Lessons from the laboratory (pp. 105–134). Psychology Press.Google Scholar

Mason, W. A., & Mendoza, S. P. (1998). Generic aspects of primate attachments: Parents, offspring and mates. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 23, 765–778.CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Matsumura, S. (1999). The evolution of “egalitarian” and “despotic” social systems among macaques. Primates, 40, 23–31.CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Mayeaux, D. J., & Mason, W. A. (1998). Development of responsiveness to novel objects in the titi monkey, Callicebus moloch. Primates, 39, 419–431.Google Scholar

Mayeaux, D. J., Mason, W. A., & Mendoza, S. P. (2002). Developmental changes in responsiveness to parents and unfamiliar adults in a monogamous monkey (Callicebus moloch). American Journal of Primatology, 58, 71–89.Google Scholar

Mayr, E. (1976). Evolution and the diversity of life. Belknap Press of Harvard University Press.Google Scholar

Mayr, E. (1982). The growth of biological thought. Belknap Press of Harvard University Press.Google Scholar

McNelis, N. L., & Boatright-Horowitz, S. L. (1998). Social monitoring in a primate group: The relationship between visual attention and hierarchical ranks. Animal Cognition, 1, 65–69.Google Scholar

Meindl, R. S., Chaney, M. E., & Lovejoy, C. O. (2018). Early hominids may have been weed species. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 115, 1244–1249.Google Scholar

Mendoza, S. P. (1991a). Behavioural and physiological indices of social relationships: Comparative studies of New World monkeys. In Primate Responses to Environmental Change (pp. 311–335). Chapman and Hall.CrossRef Google Scholar

Mendoza, S. P. (1991b). Sociophysiology of well-being in nonhuman primates. Laboratory Animal Science, 41, 344–349.Google Scholar PubMed

Mendoza, S. P. (2017). Social Stress: Concepts, assumptions, and animal models. In Pfaff, D. W. & Joëls, M. (Eds.), Hormones, brain, and behavior, Volume 1. 3rd edition (pp. 261–283). Academic Press.Google Scholar

Mendoza, S. P., & Mason, W. A. (1986a). Contrasting responses to intruders and to involuntary separation by monogamous and polygynous New World monkeys. Physiology & behavior, 38(6), 795–801.Google Scholar

Mendoza, S.P., & Mason, W.A. (1986b). Parental division of labour and differentiation of attachments in a monogamous primate (Callicebus moloch). Animal Behaviour, 34, 1336–1347.Google Scholar

Mendoza, S. P., & Mason, W. A. (1997). Autonomic balance in Saimiri sciureus and Callicebus moloch: Relation to life-style. Folia Primatologica, 68, 307–318.CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Mendoza, S. P., & Moberg, G. P. (1985). Species differences in adrenocortical activity of New World primates: Response to dexamethasone suppression. American Journal of Primatology, 8, 215–224.CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Mendoza, S. P., Reeder, D. M., & Mason, W. A. (2002). Nature of proximate mechanisms underlying primate social systems: Simplicity and redundancy. Evolutionary Anthropology: Issues, News, and Reviews, 11, 112–116.Google Scholar

Menzel, C. R. (1986a). An experimental study of territory maintenance in captive titi monkeys (Callicebus moloch). In Else, J. G. & Lee, P. C. (Eds.), Primate ecology and conservation (pp. 133–143). Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar

Menzel, C. R. (1986b). Structural aspects of arboreality in titi monkeys (Callicebus moloch). American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 70, 167–176.Google Scholar

Menzel, C. R. (1991). Cognitive aspects of foraging in Japanese monkeys. Animal Behaviour, 41(3), 397–402.Google Scholar

Menzel, C. R. (1993). Coordination and conflict in Callicebus social groups. In Mason, W. A. & Mendoza, S. P. (Eds.), Primate social conflict (pp. 253–290). State University of New York Press.Google Scholar

Menzel, C. R. (1996). Structure-guided foraging in long-tailed macaques. American Journal of Primatology, 38, 117–132.Google Scholar

Menzel, C. R. (1999). Unprompted recall and reporting of hidden objects by a chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes) after extended delays. Journal of Comparative Psychology, 113, 426–434.Google Scholar

Menzel, C. R., & Beck, B. B. (2000). Homing and detour behavior in golden lion tamarin social groups. In Boinski, S. & Garber, P. A. (Eds.), On the move: How and why animals travel in groups (pp. 299–326). University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar

Menzel, E. W. (1974). A group of young chimpanzees in a one-acre field. In Schrier, A. M. & Stollnitz, F. (Eds.), Behavior of nonhuman primates, Vol. 5 (pp. 83–153). Academic Press.Google Scholar

Mitani, J. C., & Rodman, P. S. (1979). Territoriality: The relation of ranging pattern and home range size to defendability, with an analysis of territoriality among primate species. Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology, 5, 241–251.CrossRef Google Scholar

Montilla, S. O., Mopán-Chilito, A.M., Murcia, L.N.S., Triana, J.D.M., Ruiz, O.M.C., Montoya-Cepeda, J., Gutierrez-Barreto, D.A., Holguín-Vivas, J.A., Agámez, C.J., & Pérez-Grisales, L.J. (2021). Activity patterns, diet and home range of night monkeys (Aotus griseimembra and Aotus lemurinus) in tropical lowland and mountain forests of central Colombia. International Journal of Primatology, 42, 130–153.Google Scholar

Norconk, M. A. (2007). Sakis, uakaris, and titi monkeys: behavioral diversity in a radiation of primate seed predators. In Campbell, C. J., Fuentes, A., MacKinnon, K. C., Panger, M., & Bearder, S. K. (Eds.), Primates in perspective (pp. 123–138). Oxford University Press.Google Scholar

Norconk, M. A. (2020). Historical antecedents and recent innovations in pitheciid (titi, saki, and uakari) feeding ecology. American Journal of Primatology, e23177.Google Scholar

Norconk, M. A., & Veres, M. (2011). Physical properties of fruit and seeds ingested by primate seed predators with emphasis on sakis and bearded sakis. The Anatomical Record, 294, 2092–2111.Google Scholar

Palacios, E., Rodríguez, A., & Defler, T. R. (1997). Diet of a group of Callicebus torquatus lugens (Humboldt, 1812) during the annual resource bottleneck in Amazonian Colombia. International Journal of Primatology, 18, 503–522.Google Scholar

Phillips, M. J., & Mason, W. A. (1976). Comparative studies of social behavior in Callicebus and Saimiri: Social looking in male–female pairs. Bulletin of the Psychonomic Society, 7, 55–56.Google Scholar

Piaget, J. (1971). Biology and knowledge. University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar

Piaget, J. (1978). Behavior and evolution. Pantheon Books.Google Scholar

Pinheiro, T., Ferrari, S. F., & Lopes, M. A. (2013). Activity budget, diet, and use of space by two groups of squirrel monkeys (Saimiri sciureus) in eastern Amazonia. Primates, 54, 301–308.Google Scholar

Porges, S. W. (1995). Orienting in a defensive world: Mammalian modifications of our evolutionary heritage. A polyvagal theory. Psychophysiology, 32, 301–318.Google Scholar

Porges, S. W. (1997). Emotion: An evolutionary by-product of the neural regulation of the autonomic nervous system. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 807, 62–77.Google Scholar

Porges, S. W. (2009). The polyvagal theory: New insights into adaptive reactions of the autonomic nervous system. Cleveland Clinic Journal of Medicine, 76, S86–S90.Google Scholar

Potts, R. (2004). Paleoenvironmental basis of cognitive evolution in great apes. American Journal of Primatology, 62, 209–228.Google Scholar

Pöysä, H. (1992). Group foraging in patchy environments: The importance of coarse-level local enhancement. Ornis Scandinavica, 23, 159–166.CrossRef Google Scholar

Putney, R. T. (1985). Do willful apes know what they are aiming at? The Psychological Record, 39, 49–62.Google Scholar

Putney, R. T. (2007). Willful apes revisited: The concept of prospective control. In Washburn, D. A. (Ed.), Primate perspectives on behavior and cognition (pp. 207–219). American Psychological Association.CrossRef Google Scholar

Raghanti, M. A., Edler, M. K., Stephenson, A. R., Munger, E. L., Jacobs, B., Hof, P. R., Sherwood, C. C., Holloway, R. L., & Lovejoy, C. O. (2018). A neurochemical hypothesis for the origin of hominids. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 115, E1108–E1116.Google Scholar

Reed, E. S. (1996). Encountering the world: Toward an ecological psychology. Oxford University Press.Google Scholar

Roberts, W. A., Mitchell, S., & Phelps, M. T. (1993). Foraging in laboratory trees: Spatial memory in squirrel monkeys. In Zentall, T. R. (Ed.), Animal cognition: A tribute to Donald A. Riley (pp. 131–151). Erlbaum.Google Scholar

Robinson, J. G. (1979). Vocal regulation of use of space by groups of titi monkeys Callicebus moloch. Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology, 5, 1–15.Google Scholar

Romanes, G. J. (1883). Mental evolution in animals with a posthumous essay on instinct by Charles Darwin. Kegan Paul, Trench, & Co.Google Scholar

Rosenberger, A. L. (1992). Evolution of feeding niches in New World monkeys. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 88, 525–562.CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Rothwell, E. S., Carp, S. B., Savidge, L. E., Mendoza, S. P., & Bales, K. L. (2020). Relationship tenure differentially influences pair‐bond behavior in male and female socially monogamous titi monkeys (Callicebus cupreus). American Journal of Primatology, 82, e23181.Google Scholar

Rotundo, M., Fernandez-Duque, E., & Dixson, A. F. (2005). Infant development and parental care in free-ranging Aotus azarai azarai in Argentina. International Journal of Primatology, 26, 1459–1473.Google Scholar

Rowe, N. (1996). The pictorial guide to the living primates. Pogonias Press.Google Scholar

Sayers, K. (2017). Folivory. In Fuentes, A. (Ed.), The international encyclopedia of primatology (pp. 414–418). Wiley Blackwell.Google Scholar

Sayers, K., & Lovejoy, C. O. (2014). Blood, bulbs, and bunodonts: On evolutionary ecology and the diets of Ardipithecus, Australopithecus, and early Homo. The Quarterly Review of Biology, 89, 319–357.Google Scholar

Sayers, K., & Menzel, C. R. (2012). Memory and foraging theory: Chimpanzee utilization of optimality heuristics in the rank-order recovery of hidden foods. Animal Behaviour, 84, 795–803.Google Scholar

Teixeira, A. L. D. S., da Silva, W. B., Oliveira, K. G., Correa, I. C., Gonzaga, C. N., & Almosny, N. R. P. (2021). Biochemistry, Doppler echocardiography, and electrocardiography evaluation in captive owl monkeys (Aotus sp). Journal of Medical Primatology, 50, 89–98.Google Scholar

Thompson, C. L. (2016). To pair or not to pair: Sources of social variability with white‐faced saki monkeys (Pithecia pithecia) as a case study. American Journal of Primatology, 78, 561–572.Google Scholar

Thompson, C. L., & Norconk, M. A. (2011). Within‐group social bonds in white‐faced saki monkeys (Pithecia pithecia) display male–female pair preference. American Journal of Primatology, 73, 1051–1061.Google Scholar

Valeggia, C. R. (1996). Social influences on the development of sexual physiology and behavior in titi monkey females (Callicebus moloch). PhD Thesis, University of California, Davis.Google Scholar

Visalberghi, E., & Mason, W. A. (1983). Determinants of problem-solving success in Saimiri and Callicebus. Primates, 24, 385–396.Google Scholar

Vogel, S. (1988). Life’s devices. Princeton University Press.Google Scholar

Wainwright, S. A. (1988). Axis and circumference: The cylindrical shape of plants and animals. Harvard University Press.Google Scholar

Whiten, A., & van de Waal, E. (2018). The pervasive role of social learning in primate lifetime development. Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology, 72, 1–16.Google Scholar

Wolovich, C. K., & Evans, S. (2007). Sociosexual behavior and chemical communication of Aotus nancymaae. International Journal of Primatology, 28, 1299–1313.Google Scholar

Wolovich, C. K., Evans, S., & Green, S. M. (2010). Mated pairs of owl monkeys (Aotus nancymaae) exhibit sex differences in response to unfamiliar male and female conspecifics. American Journal of Primatology, 72, 942–950.Google Scholar

Wright, P. C. (1994). The behavior and ecology of the owl monkey. In Baer, J. F., Weller, R. E., & Kakoma, I. (Eds.), Aotus: The owl monkey (pp. 97–112). Academic Press.Google Scholar

Zimbler-DeLorenzo, H. S. & Stone, A. I. (2011). Integration of field and captive studies for understanding the behavioral ecology of the squirrel monkey (Saimiri sp.). American Journal of Primatology, 73, 607–622.Google Scholar

Accessibility standard: Unknown

Why this information is here

This section outlines the accessibility features of this content - including support for screen readers, full keyboard navigation and high-contrast display options. This may not be relevant for you.

Accessibility Information

Accessibility compliance for the HTML of this chapter is currently unknown and may be updated in the future.