Suicide Prevention in Young People

doi:10.1017/9781108963763.009

Chapter 8 - Suicide Prevention in Young People

from Section 2 - Specific Challenges in Preventing Suicide

Published online by Cambridge University Press: 18 December 2025

Katrina Witt ,

Sarah Hetrick and

Jo Robinson

Edited by

Rob Poole ,

Murad M. Khan and

Catherine A. Robinson

Show author details

Rob Poole: Affiliation:
Bangor University
Murad M. Khan: Affiliation:
Aga Khan University
Catherine A. Robinson: Affiliation:
University of Manchester

Book contents

Get access

Summary

Suicide is a leading cause of death for young people (variously defined as those aged up to 24-29 years) worldwide. Non-fatal self-harm, which we define as including all intentional acts of self-poisoning (e.g., intentional drug overdoses, ingestion of products not intended for human consumption) or self-injury (e.g., self-cutting) regardless of degree of suicidal intent or other types of motivation is more common. In this chapter, we do not distinguish between attempted suicide and non-fatal self-injury as there is a high degree of co-occurrence between the two behaviours, particularly in young people.

Information

Type: Chapter
Information: Preventing Suicide
An Evidence-Based Approach
, pp. 93 - 110

DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/9781108963763.009 [Opens in a new window]

Publisher: Cambridge University Press

Print publication year: 2026

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

Book purchase

Temporarily unavailable

References

Hawton, K, Hariss, L, Hall, S, Simkin, S, Bale, E, Bond, A. Deliberate self-harm in Oxford, 1990–2000: A time of change in patient characteristics. Psychological Medicine. 2003; 33: 987–96.10.1017/S0033291703007943CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Andover, M, Morris, B, Wren, A, Bruzzese, ME. The co-occurrence of non-suicidal self-injury and attempted suicide among adolescents: Distinguishing risk and psychosocial correlates. Child and Adolescent Psychiatry and Mental Health. 2016; 2012: 11.Google Scholar

De Beurs, D, Vancayseele, N, van Borkulo, C, Portzky, G, van Heeringen, K. The association between motives, perceived problems and current thoughts of self-harm following an episode of self-harm: A network analysis. Journal of Affective Disorders. 2018; 240: 262–70.10.1016/j.jad.2018.07.047CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

World Health Organization. Global Health Observatory Data Repository: Suicide Rate Estimates, Crude, 5-Year Age Groups up to 29 Years. Geneva: World Health Organization; 2018. https://apps.who.int/gho/data/node.main.MHSUICIDE5YEARAGEGROUPS?lang=en.Google Scholar

Naghavi, M. Global, regional, and national burden of suicide mortality 1990 to 2016: Systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2016. British Medical Journal. 2019; 364: 194.Google Scholar PubMed

Glenn, C, Kleiman, E, Kellerman, J, Pollak, O, Cha, C, Esposito, E, et al. Annual research review: A meta-analytic review of worldwide suicide rates in adolescents. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry. 2020; 61: 294–308.CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Pirkis, J, John, A, Shin, S, DelPozo-Banos, M, Arya, V, Analuisa-Aguilar, P, et al. Suicide trends in the early months of the COVID-19 pandemic: An interrupted time-series analysis of preliminary data from 21 countries. Lancet Psychiatry. 2021; 8: 579–88.10.1016/S2215-0366(21)00091-2CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Montenovo, L, Jiang, X, Lozano Rojas, F, Schmutte, I, Simon, K, Weinberg, B, et al. Determinants of Disparities in COVID-19 Job Losses. Cambridge: National Bureau of Economic Research; 2020. www.nber.org/system/files/working_papers/w27132/w27132.pdf.10.3386/w27132CrossRef Google Scholar

Churchill, B. COVID-19 and the immediate impact on young people and employment in Australia: A gendered analysis. Gender, Work and Organization. 2020; 28: 783–94.Google Scholar

Geulayov, G, Casey, D, McDonald, K, Foster, P, Pritchard, K, Wells, C, et al. Incidence of suicide, hospital-presenting non-fatal self-harm, and community-occurring non-fatal self-harm in adolescents in England (the iceberg model of self-harm): A retrospective study. Lancet Psychiatry. 2018; 5: 167–74.10.1016/S2215-0366(17)30478-9CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Lim, K-S, Wong, C, McIntyre, R, Wang, J, Zhang, Z, Tran, B, et al. Global lifetime and 12-month prevalence of suicidal behavior, deliberate self-harm and non-suicidal self-injury in children and adolescents between 1989 and 2018: A meta-analysis. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2019; 16: 4581.CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Tørmoen, A, Myhre, M, Walby, F, Grøholt, B, Rossow, I. Change in prevalence of self-harm from 2002 to 2018 among Norwegian adolescents. European Journal of Public Health. 2020; 30: 688–92.10.1093/eurpub/ckaa042CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Griffin, E, McMahon, E, McNicholas, F, Corcoran, P, Perry, I, Arensman, E. Increasing rates of self-harm among children, adolescents and young adults: A 10-year national registry study 2007–2016. Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology. 2018; 53: 663–71.10.1007/s00127-018-1522-1CrossRef Google Scholar

Bennardi, M, McMahon, E, Corcoran, P, Griffin, E, Arensman, E. Risk of repeated self-harm and associated factors in children, adolescents, and young adults. BMC Psychiatry. 2016; 16: 421.10.1186/s12888-016-1120-2CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

McGill, K, Hiles, S, Handley, T, Page, A, Lewin, T, Whyte, I, et al. Is the reported increase in young female hospital-treated intentional self-harm real or artefactual? Australian and New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry. 2018; 53: 663–72.Google Scholar PubMed

Snowdon, J, Phillips, J, Zhong, B, Yamauchi, T, Chiu, HFK, Conwell, Y. Changes in age patterns of suicide in Australia, the United States, Japan and Hong Kong. Journal of Affective Disorders. 2017; 211: 12–9.10.1016/j.jad.2017.01.007CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Gillies, D, Christou, MA, Dixon, AC, Featherston, OJ, Rapti, I, Garcia-Anguita, A, et al. Prevalence and characteristics of self-harm in adolescents: Meta-analyses of community-based studies 1990–2015. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry. 2018; 57: 733–41.Google Scholar PubMed

Roh, B, Jung, E, Hong, H. A comparative study of suicide rates among 10–19-year-olds in 29 OECD countries. Psychiatry Investigations. 2018; 15: 376–83.Google Scholar PubMed

Kõlves, K, De Leo, D. Suicide rates in children aged 10–14 years worldwide: Changes in the past two decades. British Journal of Psychiatry. 2014; 205: 283–5.10.1192/bjp.bp.114.144402CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Diggins, E, Kelley, R, Cottrell, D, House, A, Owens, D. Age-related differences in self-harm presentations and subsequent management of adolescents and young adults at the emergency department. Journal of Adolescent Health. 2017; 66: 470–77.Google Scholar

Russon, J, Washington, R, Machado, A, Smithee, L, Dellinger, J. Suicide among LGBTQIA+ youth: A review of the treatment literature. Aggression and Violent Behavior. 2020; 64: 101578.10.1016/j.avb.2021.101578CrossRef Google Scholar

Liu, RT, Sheehan, AE, Walsh, RFL, Sanzari, CM, Cheek, SM, Hernandez, EM. Prevalence and correlates of non-suicidal self-injury among lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender individuals: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Clinical Psychology Review. 2019; 74: 101783.CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Skerrett, DM, Kõlves, K, De Leo, D. Suicides among lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender populations in Australia: An analysis of the Queensland Suicide Register. Queensland Suicide Register 2014; 6: 440–6.Google Scholar PubMed

Carroll, R, Metcalfe, C, Gunnell, D. Hospital presenting self-harm and risk of fatal and non-fatal repetition: Systematic review and meta-analysis. PLoS One. 2014; 9: e89944.CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Hawton, K, Saunders, K, O’Connor, R. Self-harm and suicide in adolescents. Lancet. 2012; 379: 2373–82.CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Lee, K, Li, C, Chang, K, Lu, T, Chen, Y. Age at exposure to parental suicide and the subsequent risk of suicide in young people. Crisis. 2017; 39: 27–36.10.1027/0227-5910/a000468CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Hua, P, Bugeja, L, Maple, M. A systematic review on the relationship between childhood exposure to external cause parental death, including suicide, on subsequent suicidal behaviour. Journal of Affective Disorders. 2019; 257: 723–34.CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Voracek, M, Loibl, L. Genetics of suicide: A systematic review of twin studies. Wiener klinische Wochenschrift. 2007; 119: 463–75.CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Lu, T, Chang, W, Lin, J, Li, C. Suicide method runs in families: A birth certificate cohort study of adolescent suicide in Taiwan. Suicide and Life-Threatening Behavior. 2011; 41: 685–90.10.1111/j.1943-278X.2011.00064.xCrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Docherty, A, Shabalin, A, Di Blasi, E, Monson, E, Mullins, N, Adkins, D, et al. Genome-wide association study of suicide death and polygenic prediction of clinical antecedents. American Journal of Psychiatry. 2020; 177: 917–27.10.1176/appi.ajp.2020.19101025CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Campos, A, Verweij, K, Statham, D, Madden, P, Maciejewski, D, Davis, K, et al. Genetic aetiology of self-harm ideation and behaviour. Scientific Reports. 2020; 10: 9713.10.1038/s41598-020-66737-9CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Mann, J. Neurobiology of suicidal behavior. Nature Reviews Neuroscience. 2003; 4: 819–28.10.1038/nrn1220CrossRef Google Scholar

van Heeringen, K, Mann, J. The neurobiology of suicide. Lancet Psychiatry. 2014; 1: 63–72.10.1016/S2215-0366(14)70220-2CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Chang, B, Franklin, J, Ribeiro, J, Fox, K, Bentley, K, Kleiman, E, et al. Biological risk factors for suicidal behaviors: A meta-analysis. Translational Psychiatry. 2016; 6: e887.10.1038/tp.2016.165CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Zahl, D, Hawton, K. Repetition of deliberate self-harm and subsequent suicide risk: Long-term follow-up study of 11, 583 patients. British Journal of Psychiatry. 2004; 185: 70–5.10.1192/bjp.185.1.70CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Witt, K, Pirkis, J, Scott, D, Smith, K, Lubman, D. Trajectories in suicide attempt method lethality over a five-year period: Associations with suicide attempt repetition, all-cause mortality, and suicide mortality. PLoS One. 2021; 16: e0245780.10.1371/journal.pone.0245780CrossRef Google Scholar

Witt, K, Daly, C, Arensman, E, Pirkis, J, Lubman, D. Patterns of self-harm methods over time and the association with methods used at repeat episodes of non-fatal self-harm and suicide: A systematic review. Journal of Affective Disorders. 2019; 245: 250–64.10.1016/j.jad.2018.11.001CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Karch, D, Logan, J, McDaniel, D, Floyd, C, Vagi, K. Precipitating circumstances of suicide among youth aged 10–17 years by sex: Data from the national violent death reporting system, 16 States, 2005–2008. Journal of Adolescent Health. 2013; 53: S51–3.10.1016/j.jadohealth.2012.06.028CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Sheftall, A, Asti, L, Horowitz, L, Felts, A, Fontanella, C, Campo, J, et al. Suicide in elementary school-aged children and early adolescents. Pediatrics. 2016; 138: e20160436.CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Witt, K, Milner, A, Spittal, M, Hetrick, S, Robinson, J, Pirkis, J, et al. Population attributable risk of factors associated with the repetition of self-harm behaviour in young people presenting to clinical services: A systematic review and meta-analysis. European Child & Adolescent Psychiatry. 2019; 28: 5–18.10.1007/s00787-018-1111-6CrossRef Google Scholar

Page, A, Morrell, S, Hobbs, C, Carter, G, Dudley, M, Duflou, J, et al. Suicide in young adults: Psychiatric and socio-economic factors from a case–control study. BMC Psychiatry. 2014; 14: 68.10.1186/1471-244X-14-68CrossRef Google Scholar

Annor, F, Zwald, M, Wilkinson, A, Friedrichs, M, Fondario, A, Dunn, A, et al. Characteristics of and precipitating circumstances surrounding suicide among persons aged 10–17 years – Utah, 2011–2015. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report. 2018; 67: 329–32.Google Scholar PubMed

Houston, K, Hawton, K, Shepperd, R. Suicide in young people aged 15–24: A psychological autopsy study. Journal of Affective Disorders. 2001; 63: 159–70.CrossRef Google Scholar

Qin, P. The impact of psychiatric illness on suicide: Differences by diagnosis of disorders and by sex and age of subjects. Journal of Psychiatric Research. 2011; 45: 1445–52.10.1016/j.jpsychires.2011.06.002CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Hill, N, Witt, K, Rajaram, G, McGorry, P, Robinson, J. Suicide by young Australians, 2006–2015: A cross-sectional analysis of national coronial data. Medical Journal of Australia. 2020; 214: 133–9.Google Scholar

Serafini, G, Canepa, G, Adavastro, G, Nebbia, J, Belvederi Murri, M, Erbuto, D, et al. The relationship between childhood maltreatment and non-suicidal self-injury: A systematic review. Frontiers in Psychiatry. 2017; 24: 149.CrossRef Google Scholar

Castellví, P, Miranda-Mendizábal, A, Parés-Badell, O, Almenara, J, Alonso, I, Blasco, M, et al. Exposure to violence, a risk for suicide in youths and young adults: A meta-analysis of longitudinal studies. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica. 2017; 135: 195–211.10.1111/acps.12679CrossRef Google Scholar

Miller, A, Esposito-Smythers, C, Weismoore, J, Renshaw, K. The relation between child maltreatment and adolescent suicidal behavior: A systematic review and critical examination of the literature. Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review. 2013; 16: 146–72.10.1007/s10567-013-0131-5CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Li, M, D’Arcy, C, Meng, X. Maltreatment in childhood substantially increases the risk of adult depression and anxiety in prospective cohort studies: Systematic review, meta-analysis, and proportional attributable fractions. Psychological Medicine. 2016; 46: 717–30.10.1017/S0033291715002743CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Qin, P, Mortensen, P, Pedersen, C. Frequent change of residence and risk of attempted and completed suicide among children and adolescents. Archives of General Psychiatry. 2009; 66: 628–32.10.1001/archgenpsychiatry.2009.20CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Jung, S, Lee, D, Park, S, Lee, K, Kweon, Y-S, Lee, E-J, et al. Gender differences in Korean adolescents who died by suicide based on teacher reports. Child and Adolescent Psychiatry and Mental Health. 2019; 13: 12.10.1186/s13034-019-0274-3CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Lee, D, Jung, S, Park, K, Lee, K, Kweon, Y-S, Lee, E-J, et al. Youth suicide in Korea across the educational stages: A postmortem comparison of psychosocial characteristics of elementary, middle, and high school students. Crisis. 2020; 41: 187–95.10.1027/0227-5910/a000624CrossRef Google Scholar

Milner, A, Page, A, LaMontagne, A. Cause and effect in studies on unemployment, mental health and suicide: A meta-analytic and conceptual review. Psychological Medicine. 2013; 44: 909–17.Google Scholar PubMed

Stamates, A. The Bidirectionality of Impulsivity and Alcohol Use: An Ecological Momentary Examination among Emerging Adults. Norfolk, VA: Old Dominion University; 2019.Google Scholar

Simons, J, Emery, N, Simons, R, Wills, T, Webb, M. Effects of alcohol, rumination, and gender on the time course of negative affect. Cognition and Emotion. 2017; 31: 1405–18.10.1080/02699931.2016.1226162CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Witt, K, Lubman, D. Effective suicide prevention: Where is the discussion on alcohol? Australian and New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry. 2018; 52: 507–8.10.1177/0004867418774415CrossRef Google Scholar

Amadi, S, Berman, M, Timmins, M, Guillot, C, Fanning, J, Nadorff, M, et al. Analgesic effect of alcohol mediates the association between alcohol intoxication and deliberate self-harm. Archives of Suicide Research. 2022; 26: 1060–71.10.1080/13811118.2020.1851831CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Norström, T, Rossow, I. Alcohol consumption as a risk factor for suicidal behavior: A systematic review of associations at the individual and at the population level. Archives of Suicide Research. 2016; 20: 489–506.10.1080/13811118.2016.1158678CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Lee, J, Chang, SJ, Kim, H, Kim, MH, Ahn, JS, Park, KC, et al. Prolonged risk of suicide reattempts in patients with alcohol use disorder and acute alcohol use: A register-based follow-up study (2010–2015). Psychiatry Investigation. 2019; 16: 145–53.10.30773/pi.2018.11.22CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Song, J, Park, S, Lee, K, Hong, H. Influence of area-level characteristics on the suicide rate in Korean adolescents. Psychiatry Investigation. 2019; 16: 800–7.10.30773/pi.2019.0025CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Pollock, N, Naicker, K, Loro, A, Mulay, S, Colman, I. Global incidence of suicide among Indigenous peoples: A systematic review. BMC Medicine. 2018; 16: 145.10.1186/s12916-018-1115-6CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Child and adolescent health suicide in indigenous youth: An unmitigated crisis. Lancet Child & Adolescent Health. 2019; 3: 129.CrossRef Google Scholar

Harder, H, Rash, J, Holyk, T, Jovel, E, Harder, K. Indigenous youth suicide: A systematic review of the literature. Pimatisiwin: A Journal of Aboriginal and Indigenous Community Health. 2012; 10: 125–42.Google Scholar

Mitrou, F, Cooke, M, Lawrence, D, Povah, D, Mobilia, E, Guimond, E, et al. Gaps in Indigenous disadvantage not closing: A census cohort study of social determinants of health in Australia, Canada, and New Zealand from 1981–2006. BMC Public Health. 2014; 14: 201.CrossRef Google Scholar

Kilian, A, Williamson, A. What is known about pathways to mental health care for Australian Aboriginal young people? A narrative review. International Journal for Equity in Health. 2018; 17: 12.10.1186/s12939-018-0727-yCrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Hill, N, Robinson, J, Pirkis, J, Andriessen, K, Krysinska, K, Payne, A, et al. Association of suicidal behavior with exposure to suicide and suicide attempt: A systematic review and multilevel meta-analysis. PLoS Medicine. 2020; 17: e1003074.CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Hawton, K, Hill, N, Gould, M, John, A, Lascelles, K, Robinson, J. Clustering of suicides in children and adolescents. Lancet Child and Adolescent Health. 2019; 4: 58–67.10.1016/S2352-4642(19)30335-9CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Haw, C, Hawton, K, Niedzwiedz, C, Platt, S. Suicide clusters: A review of risk factors and mechanisms. Suicide and Life-Threatening Behavior. 2013; 43: 97–108.CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Jordan, J, McNeil, D. Characteristics of persons who die on their first suicide attempt: Results from the National Violent Death Reporting System. Psychological Medicine. 2020; 50: 1390–97.10.1017/S0033291719001375CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Rodway, C, Tham, S-G, Ibrahim, S, Turnbull, P, Kapur, N, Appleby, L. Children and young people who die by suicide: Childhood-related antecedents, gender differences and service contact. British Journal of Psychiatry Open. 2020; 6: e49.10.1192/bjo.2020.33CrossRef Google Scholar

Mrazek, P, Haggerty, R. Reducing Risk for Mental Disorders: Frontiers for Preventive Intervention Research. Washington, DC: National Academy Press; 1994.Google Scholar

Nordentoft, M. Crucial elements in suicide prevention strategies. Progress in Neuro-Psychopharmacology and Biological Psychiatry. 2011; 35: 848–53.CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Ftanou, M, Cox, G, Nicholas, A, Spittal, M, Machlin, A, Robinson, J, et al. Suicide prevention Public Service Announcements (PSAs): Examples from around the world. Health Communication. 2017; 32: 493–501.10.1080/10410236.2016.1140269CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Torok, M, Calear, A, Shand, F, Christensen, H. A systematic review of mass media campaigns for suicide prevention: Understanding their efficacy and the mechanisms needed for successful behavioral and literacy change. Suicide and Life-Threatening Behavior. 2017; 47: 672–87.10.1111/sltb.12324CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Pirkis, J, Rossetto, A, Nicholas, A, Ftanou, M, Robinson, J, Reavley, N. Suicide prevention media campaigns: A systematic literature review. Health Communication. 2019; 34: 402–14.10.1080/10410236.2017.1405484CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Klimes-Dougan, B, Klingbeil, D, Meller, S. The impact of universal suicide-prevention programs on the help-seeking attitudes and behaviors of youths. Crisis. 2013; 34: 82–97.10.1027/0227-5910/a000178CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Atkinson, J, Page, A, Heffernan, M, McDonnell, G, Prodan, A, Campos, B, et al. The impact of strengthening mental health services to prevent suicidal behaviour. Australian and New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry. 2018; 53: 642–50.Google Scholar PubMed

Mann, J, Michel, C. Prevention of firearm suicide in the United States: What works and what is possible? American Journal of Psychiatry. 2016; 173: 969–79.10.1176/appi.ajp.2016.16010069CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Violano, P, Bonne, S, Duncan, T, Pappas, P, Christmas, A, Dennis, A, et al. Prevention of firearm injuries with gun safety devices and safe storage: An Eastern Association for the Surgery of Trauma systematic review. Journal of Trauma and Acute Care Surgery. 2018; 84: 1003–11.10.1097/TA.0000000000001879CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Okolie, C, Wood, S, Hawton, K, Kandalama, U, Glendenning, A, Dennis, M, et al. Means restriction for the prevention of suicide by jumping. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews. 2020; 2: CD013543.Google Scholar PubMed

Zalsman, G, Hawton, K, Wasserman, D, Van Heeringen, K, Arensman, E, Sarchiapone, M, et al. Suicide prevention strategies revisited: 10-year systematic review. Lancet Psychiatry. 2016; 3: 646–59.10.1016/S2215-0366(16)30030-XCrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Gunnell, D, Knipe, D, Chang, S-S, Pearson, M, Konradsen, F, Lee, W, et al. Prevention of suicide with regulations aimed at restricting access to highly hazardous pesticides: A systematic review of the international evidence. Lancet Global Health. 2017; 5: e1026–37.10.1016/S2214-109X(17)30299-1CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Routley, V. Motor vehicle exhaust gas suicide: Review of countermeasures. Crisis. 2007; 28: 28–35.10.1027/0227-5910.28.S1.28CrossRef Google Scholar

Sarchiapone, M, Mandelli, L, Iosue, M, Andrisano, C, Roy, A. Controlling access to suicide means. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2011; 8: 4550–62.10.3390/ijerph8124550CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Bateman, D. Limiting paracetamol pack size: Has it worked in the UK? Clinical Toxicology. 2009; 47: 536–41.10.1080/15563650903093192CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Arensman, E, Bennardi, M, Larkin, C, Wall, A, McAuliffe, C, McCarthy, J, et al. Suicide among young people and adults in Ireland: Method characteristics, toxicological analysis and substance abuse histories compared. PLoS One. 2016; 11: e0166881.10.1371/journal.pone.0166881CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Kim, A. Alcohol consumption and suicide rate: A cross-sectional analysis in 183 countries. Psychiatry Research. 2020; 295: 113553.10.1016/j.psychres.2020.113553CrossRef Google Scholar

Kõlves, K, Chitty, K, Wardhani, R, Värnik, A, de Leo, D, Witt, K. Impact of alcohol policies on suicidal behavior: A systematic literature review. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2020; 17: 7030.10.3390/ijerph17197030CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Markowitz, S, Chatterji, P, Kaestner, R. Estimating the impact of alcohol policies on youth suicides. Journal of Mental Health Policy and Economics. 2003; 6: 37–46.Google Scholar PubMed

Cusimano, M, Sameem, M. The effectiveness of middle and high school-based suicide prevention programmes for adolescents: A systematic review. Injury Prevention. 2011; 17: 43–9.10.1136/ip.2009.025502CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Rowe, S, French, R, Henderson, C, Ougrin, D, Slade, M, Moran, P. Help-seeking behaviour and adolescent self-harm: A systematic review. Australian and New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry. 2014; 48: 1083–95.10.1177/0004867414555718CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Michelmore, L, Hindley, P. Help-seeking for suicidal thoughts and self-harm in young people: A systematic review. Suicide and Life-Threatening Behavior. 2012; 42: 507–24.10.1111/j.1943-278X.2012.00108.xCrossRef Google Scholar

Menon, V, Subramanian, K, Selvakumar, N, Kattimani, S. Suicide prevention strategies: An overview of current evidence and best practice elements. International Journal of Advanced Medical and Health Research. 2018; 5: 43–51.CrossRef Google Scholar

Bazley, R, Pakenham, K. Feasibility evaluation of the HOLLY program: An ACT-based suicide prevention program for Christian faith-based organisations. Advances in Mental Health. 2020; 18: 115–30.10.1080/18387357.2018.1557015CrossRef Google Scholar

Nasir, B, Hides, L, Kisely, S, Ranmuthugala, G, Nicholson, G, Black, E, et al. The need for a culturally tailored gatekeeper training intervention program in preventing suicide among Indigenous peoples: A systematic review. BMC Psychiatry. 2016; 16: 357.10.1186/s12888-016-1059-3CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Pierret, A, Anderson, J, Ford, T, Burn, A. Education and training interventions, and support tools for school staff to adequately respond to young people who disclose self-harm – a systematic literature review of effectiveness, feasibility and acceptability. Child and Adolescent Mental Health. 2022; 27: 161–72.10.1111/camh.12436CrossRef Google Scholar

Torok, M, Calear, A, Smart, A, Nicolopoulos, A, Wong, Q. Preventing adolescent suicide: A systematic review of the effectiveness and change mechanisms of suicide prevention gatekeeping training programs for teachers and parents. Journal of Adolescence. 2019; 73: 100–12.10.1016/j.adolescence.2019.04.005CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Evans, R, Hurrell, C. The role of schools in children and young people’s self-harm and suicide: Systematic review and meta-ethnography of qualitative research. BMC Public Health. 2016; 16: 401.10.1186/s12889-016-3065-2CrossRef Google Scholar

Peña, J, Caine, E. Screening as an approach for adolescent suicide prevention. Suicide and Life-Threatening Behavior. 2006; 36: 614–37.Google Scholar

Robinson, J, Bailey, E, Witt, K, Stefanac, N, Milner, A, Currier, D, et al. What works in youth suicide prevention? A systematic review and meta-analysis. eClinicalMedicine. 2018; 4–5: 52–91.CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

La Sala, L, Teh, Z, Lamblin, M, Rajaram, G, Rice, S, Hill, NTM, et al. Can a social media intervention improve online communication about suicide? A feasibility study examining the acceptability and potential impact of the #chatsafe campaign. PLoS One. 2021; 16(6): e0253278.10.1371/journal.pone.0253278CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

La Sala, L, Pirkis, J, Cooper, C, Hill, NTM, Lamblin, M, Rajaram, G, et al. Acceptability and potential impact of the #chatsafe suicide postvention response among young people who have been exposed to suicide: pilot study. Journal of Medical Internet Research: Human Factors. 2023; 10: e44535.Google Scholar PubMed

Healy, D. Lines of evidence on the risks of suicide with selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors. Psychotherapy and Psychosomatics. 2003; 72: 71–9.10.1159/000068691CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Gibbons, R, Brown, C, Hur, K, Marcus, S, Bhaumik, D, Erkens, J, et al. Early evidence on the effects of regulators’ suicidality warnings on SSRI prescriptions and suicide in children and adolescents. American Journal of Psychiatry. 2007; 164: 1356–63.10.1176/appi.ajp.2007.07030454CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Lu, C, Zhang, F, Lakoma, M, Madden, J, Rusinak, D, Penfold, R, et al. Changes in antidepressant use by young people and suicidal behavior after FDA warnings and media coverage: Quasi-experimental study. British Medical Journal. 2014; 348: j3596.10.1136/bmj.g3596CrossRef Google Scholar

Plöderl, M, Hengartner, M. Antidepressant prescription rates and suicide attempt rates from 2004 to 2016 in a nationally representative sample of adolescents in the USA. Epidemiology and Psychiatric Sciences. 2019; 28: 589–91.10.1017/S2045796018000136CrossRef Google Scholar

Whitely, M, Raven, M, Jureidini, J. Antidepressant prescribing and suicide/self-harm by young Australians: Regulatory warnings, contradictory advice, and long-term trends. Frontiers in Psychiatry. 2020; 11: 478.10.3389/fpsyt.2020.00478CrossRef Google Scholar

Witt, KG, Hetrick, SE, Rajaram, G, Hazell, P, Taylor Salisbury, TL, Townsend, E, et al. Interventions for self‐harm in children and adolescents. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews. 2021; 3: CD013667.Google Scholar PubMed

Witt, K, Hetrick, S, Rajaram, G, Hazell, P, Taylor Salisbury, T, Townsend, E, et al. Pharmacological interventions for self-harm in adults. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews. 2021; 12: CD013669.Google Scholar

Gjelsvik, B, Heyerdahl, F, Lunn, D, Hawton, K. Change in access to prescribed medication following an episode of deliberate self-poisoning: A multilevel approach. PLoS One. 2014; 9: e98086.10.1371/journal.pone.0098086CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Witt, K, Madsen, T, Berk, M, Dean, O, Chanen, A, McGorry, PD, et al. Trajectories of change in depression symptoms and suicidal ideation over the course of evidence-based treatment for depression: Secondary analysis of a randomised controlled trial of cognitive behavioural therapy plus fluoxetine in young people. Australian and New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry. 2021; 55: 506–16.10.1177/0004867421998763CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Witt, K, Townsend, E, Arensman, E, Gunnell, D, Hazell, P, Taylor Salisbury, T, et al. Psychosocial interventions for people who self-harm: Methodological issues involved in trials to evaluate effectiveness. Archives of Suicide Research. 2020; 24: S32–93.10.1080/13811118.2019.1592043CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Owens, C, Fox, F, Redwood, S, Davies, R, Foote, L, Salisbury, N, et al. Measuring outcomes in trials of interventions for people who self-harm: Qualitative study of service users’ views. British Journal of Psychiatry Open. 2020; 6: e22.10.1192/bjo.2019.93CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Witt, K, Spittal, M, Carter, G, Pirkis, J, Hetrick, S, Currier, D, et al. Effectiveness of online and mobile telephone applications (‘apps’) for the self-management of suicidal ideation and self-harm: A systematic review and meta-analysis. BMC Psychiatry. 2017; 17: 297.10.1186/s12888-017-1458-0CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Franklin, J, Fox, K, Franklin, C, Kleiman, E, Ribeiro, J, Jaroszewski, A, et al. A brief mobile app reduces nonsuicidal and suicidal self-injury: Evidence from three randomized controlled trials. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology. 2016; 84: 544–57.10.1037/ccp0000093CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Accessibility standard: Unknown

Why this information is here

This section outlines the accessibility features of this content - including support for screen readers, full keyboard navigation and high-contrast display options. This may not be relevant for you.

Accessibility Information

Accessibility compliance for the HTML of this chapter is currently unknown and may be updated in the future.