Index

Jennifer Stisa Granick

Index

9/11. see September 11, 2001 attacks

9/11 Commission. see National Commission on Terrorist Attacks Upon the United States (9/11 Commission)

1971 (documentary), 45

Abdulmutallab, Umar Farouk, 80

“about collection” phenomenon, 121–123, 305

Abrahmson, Larry, 61

ACLU (American Civil Liberties Union). see American Civil Liberties Union (ACLU)

ACLU v. Clapper, 959 F.Supp.2d 724 (SDNY 2013), ix

Adams, John, 218

Addington, David, 194–196, 201, 207

advertising, targeted data collection for, 57–60, 90

after-the-fact justifications, 192

after-the-fact rules, 3, 152, 211, 243

agent of a foreign power test, FISA provisions, 184–186, 210

agent of a foreign power test, in FISA provisions, 213, 249, 304

airport security, 93

Albertson, William, 135–136

Alert List, structure of, 14

Alexander, Keith, 34–36, 82, 247

Alexander, Michelle, 130

Ali, Muhammad, 132

American citizens

“about collection” phenomenon in foreign surveillance and, 121–123

domestic surveillance of, 100–106

foreign surveillance of, 149–150

US foreign surveillance including, 3, 106–115

American Civil Liberties Union (ACLU), 13, 91–92, 145, 148, 222, 229

amicus curiae, judicial oversight of surveillance and, 160, 298

Amnesty International, 110, 135, 222

anarchists, federal surveillance of, 178

Android devices, global data collection from, 21–22

Apple, 234n. 19

appliances, data generation by, 56–57

apps data, 56

Army surveillance programs, abuses in, 132–133

Ashcroft, John, 153–154, 194–196, 199–203

Assange, Julian, 43, 51

Associated Press, surveillance of journalists from, 147

asymmetrical warfare, as justification for surveillance, 24–26

AT&T, 45

STELLARWIND controversy and, 65, 200, 208

surrender of call data by, 10, 269

warrantless wiretapping and, 205

“Athens Affair” wiretapping scandal (Greece), 283

Australian Signals Directorate (ASD), 165

authoritarian regimes, 168–170

Authorization for the Use of Military Force (AUMF), 207

automatic license plate readers, 55

Awlaki, Anwar al-, 80

back door searches

minimization procedures and, 158–161

reform of, 307–309

back doors, encryption

as security threat, 263

economic impact of, 278

security risk of, 276–287

technology and, 265

Baez, Joan, 132

Baker, Howard, 132

Baker, Stewart, 65, 85–90

Baltimore Sun, The, 49

Bamford, James, 72

bank records, privacy protection for, xii

base rate fallacy, terrorism intelligence and, 95–97

Bates, John, 126, 253, 258, 299

Bayes’ Theorem, terrorism analysis and, 95–97

Bedoya, Alvaro, 151

Belgacom, 270

hacking of, 276

Bellsouth

STELLARWIND controversy and, 200

Bergen, Peter, 80

Berger v. New York, 388 U.S. 41 (1967), ix, 180–181

Big Data, 60–62, 90, 95–97, 151, 229, 302, see also metadata

bin Laden, Osama, 71

Binney, William, 46–49, 46n. 5, 268, 293, 294

black bag surveillance (FBI), 178

Black Lives Matter, 135, 140, 146

Blaze, Matt, 3, 40

BND (German spy agency), 169–170

Bork, Robert, 203

Boston Marathon bombing, 77–79, 91

botnets, 272

bounded rationality, risk assessment and, 284

Boundless Informant tool (NSA), 20

Brandeis, Louis, 179

bright line rules

phone call data collection and, 225

STELLARWIND abuses and, 200–201

Buchwald, Art, 132

bulk collection

USA PATRIOT Act authorization, 204

bulk data collection. See also mass surveillance

Congressional limits imposed on, 103–104

definitions of, 30

PPD-28 restrictions on, 113–114

regulation of, 31–32

BULLRUN, 274

Bush Administration

9/11 Commission investigation of, 70–74

domestic intelligence collection by, 11–13, 15–17, 117

illegal surveillance by, 192–196

legal immunity for espionage activities during, 213–216

post–September 11 intelligence policies of, 69–70

STELLARWIND program and, 70–74, 244

surveillance of journalists by, 148

Terrorist Surveillance Program and, 17

USA PATRIOT Act passage and, 196–199

warrantless wiretapping by, 205–213

camera surveillance, 55

CAPTIVATEDAUDIENCE, 267

Card, Andrew H., 200–201

censorship, 140, 168–170, 285

Census Bureau (US), data collection by, 136

Central Intelligence Agency (CIA)

9/11 Commission investigation of, 70–74

Boston Marathon bombing and, 77–79

minimization procedures, 37–38

national foreign intelligence from, 6

surveillance abuses by, 133

Chambliss, Saxby, 39, 61

Senate investigation into call data collection and, 10–17

Chaos surveillance operation, 133

charitable call data, private information from, 60–62

Charlie Hebdo magazine, terrorist attacks on, 79, 168–170

Cheney, Richard, 194–196

China, hacking of U.S. data by, 149, 287

Church, Frank, 182

CIA (Central Intelligence Agency). see Central Intelligence Agency (CIA)

Cisco Systems

NSA hacking of, 271

CitizenFour (documentary), 19

City University of New York (CUNY) School of Law, 144

civil liberties

domestic surveillance as threat to, 103–104

phone call data collection and, 13–14

Section 215 violations of, 203–205

surveillance policies and, 5, 74–76

civil rights movement, FBI surveillance of, 133–135

Clapper v. Amnesty Int’l USA, 133 S.Ct. 1138 (2013), ix, 222, 239

Clapper, James, 33–36, 247

Clarke, Richard, 230

Cleaver, Eldridge, 132

Clinton, Hillary, 42

Clinton, William, 142

“Clipper Chip” technology, 264

cloud backup data, surveillance of, 108

COINTELPRO domestic spy program, 45, 183

Cole, David, 24

Coll, Steve, 148

collection, NSA definition of, 33–36

Collection, Processing and Dissemination of Allied Communications (NSA), 163–165

Comey, James B., 130, 153–154, 199–203, 225, 246, 250

commercial data

back doors as threat to, 278

business records order, 203–205

foreign regulations concerning, 168–170

NSA surveillance of, 110–111

overseas telecommunications industries and, 166

communication, intelligence definition of, 156–158

Communications Act of 1934, 176–178, 199

Communications Assistance to Law Enforcement Act (CALEA), 283

communications security, 288

Communications Security Establishment Canada (CSEC), 163–165

Communist Party in US, FBI surveillance of, 135–136, 178

Congress

call data collection and role of, 10–17

Executive Branch expansion of surveillance and, 176–178

Fourth Amendment protections and, 172–175

future oversight of surveillance by, 296

legal immunity for spying from, 213–216

metadata legislation and, 302

oversight of surveillance by, 244, 246, 296

privacy protections and, 172

STELLARWIND controversy and, 192–196, 199–203

contact chaining technique, phone call data collection and, 14–15, 47, 101–102, 254

content/noncontent distinction

Fourth Amendment protections and, 226

NSA misrepresentation of, 256

Cook, Tim, 280

Coolidge, Calvin, 175

“corporate store” database, establishment of, 103–104

CO-TRAVELER data collection program, 22–23, 38

legal issues with, 29–30

Council on American-Islamic Relations (CAIR), targeted surveillance of, 143

“Countering Violent Extremism: A Guide for Practitioners and Analysts”, 150

counterterrorism

fusion center information sharing and, 140–142

guilt vs. innocence in analysis by, 150–151

limits of surveillance data for, 80–85

mass surveillance and, 78–79

torture and kidnapping justified as, 92

Court of Justice of the European Union (CJEU), 167, 305

credit card data, surveillance using, 56

Credit Suisse First Boston (CSFB) bank, 130

Crime Control and Safe Streets Act (1968) (Wiretap Act), 205

criminal investigations

intelligence investigations vs., 73–74, 103–104, 150–151, 184–186, 196–199

privacy issues and, 128–131, 223

terrorism vs., 90–98

wiretapping in, 180–181, 233

criminal mass surveillance

targeted data collection vs., 90–98

CSEC (Communications Security Establishment Canada), 163–165

CUNY (City University of New York), 144

customer proprietary network information (CPNI), 199

cyber sovereignty movement, 168–170

cybersecurity. see also digital surveillance, see also Internet, see also encryption

section 702 policies and, 119–120

data collection

Bayes’ theorem and, 95–97

foreign citizens’ data storage, 168–170

lack of information sharing and, 70–74

NSA definition of, 34–36

public-private partnerships for, 57–60

data storage

absence of privacy and, 219–221

local data storage regulations, 168–170

overseas email data storage, 108–109

third party data collection and, 189–191

data surveillance

offline, 55, 56–57

De, Rajesh, 35

decryption systems, 274

Defense Intelligence Agency, “intelligence law handbook”, 27

DeLoach, Cartha, 132

democracy

foreign surveillance as threat to, 169–170

political surveillance as threat to, 145–147

surveillance abuses and, 5, 7–8, 24–26, 131–133, 138–140

Department of Commerce (DOC), jurisdiction over communications by, 264

Department of Defense (DOD)

data collection guidelines, 33–36

Directive 5240.1-R, 112

fusion centers and, 140–142

national and military intelligence, 6

Department of Homeland Security (DHS), 98, 140–142

Department of Justice (DOJ)

domestic intelligence collection and, 15–17

Office of Intelligence Policy and Review, 49

Office of Justice Programs, 140–142

section 702 warrantless wiretapping and, 232–240

third party doctrine and policies of, 219–221

whistleblower prosecutions and, 44–45

Department of State (State Department), 265, 285

Department of the Interior, German surveillance of, 169–170

deportation, surveillance and, 135–138

Devlin, Keith, 96, 98

DHS (Department of Homeland Security), 98, 140–142

DICE (DEA database), 104–106

digital records, privacy protection for, xi

digital surveillance. see also surveillance

Big Data tools and, 60–62

Fourth Amendment protections and, 174, 219–221, 242

growth of, 53–57

law and policy concerning, 1

political motivations for, 130

disadvantaged groups, surveillance of, 142–145

DISHFIRE global data collection system, 20, 22–23, 110

DOC (Department of Commerce), jurisdiction over communications by, 264

DOD (Department of Defense). see Department of Defense (DOD)

domestic surveillance

agent of a foreign power test and, 184–186, 210, 213, 249, 304

Bush Administration expansion of, 11–13, 199–203

call data collection and, 9–17, 85–90

Congressional investigation of, 10–17

Congressional oversight of, 248

FISA provisions on, 184n. 15

foreigners’ privacy rights and, 162–171

Levi guidelines, 183–184

limits of, 80–85

political opposition to, 203–205

political surveillance and, 51–52, 131–133, 142–147

post-September 11 focus on, 69–70

privacy violations and, 100–106

regulation of, 31–32

section 702 (FISAAA) policies and, 106–115, 116, 119–120, 213–216

STELLARWIND program and, 192–196

whistleblower revelations about, 46–50

“Don’t Ask, Don’t Tell” policy, 142

“Don’t Be A Puppet” education tool, 94

Downey, Brandon, 64

Drake, Thomas, 47–50, 293

drone surveillance, NSA data collection with, 21–22

Dropbox, 165, 168–170

Drug Enforcement Agency (DEA), call data collection by, 54, 104–106

Dual-EC-DRBG, 275

Durbin, Richard J., 248

Eagan, Claire, 230, 251

economic impact of surveillance, 167–168

EFF (Electronic Frontier Foundation). see Electronic Frontier Foundation (EFF)

Eichenwald, Kurt, 71

electoral politics, oversight of surveillance and, 246

Electronic Communications Privacy Act of 1986 (ECPA), 189–191, 220, 235, 302

Electronic Frontier Foundation (EFF), 7, 45, 60, 125, 206

Electronic Privacy Information Center, 82

electronic surveillance

AUMF and, 207

electronic surveillance (ELSUR), 5

categories of, 28–30

data collection techniques, 33–36

ECPA provisions concerning, 189–191

FISA provisions concerning, 184–186

Ellsburg, Daniel, 44–45

ELSUR (electronic surveillance). see electronic surveillance (ELSUR)

email data

about collection phenomenon and, 121–123

encryption of, 62–65

Fourth Amendment protections for, 219–221, 225

of journalists, surveillance of, 147–149

multi-communications transactions, 124–127

overseas storage of, 108–109

politically motivated investigation of, 128–131

surveillance of, 18–19, 22–23, 106–115

third party collection of, 189–191

third party data collection and, 234n. 19

employee misconduct

minimization procedures and, 153–154

encryption

anti-encryption systems and, 274

limits of, 62–65

NSA abuse of, 266

NSA vs. private sector use of, 264

weakening of, 4

EO 12333 (Executive Order 12333)

domestic intelligence collection and. see Executive Order 12333 (EO 12333)

Espionage Act (1917), 131, 175

Eurocopter, 170

European Union (EU)

cyber sovereignty movement and, 168–170

data protection laws of, 167

hacking of institutions in, 271

surveillance of companies and member states in, 169–170

Executive Branch

expansion of federal surveillance by, 183–184

expansion of federal surveillance power by, 176–178, 183–184, 194–196

oversight of surveillance by, 244, 295

public accountability for, 293

USA PATRIOT Act expansion of powers of, 196–199, 201–202

Executive Order 12333 (EO 12333), 25

domestic intelligence collection and, 106–115

foreign intelligence collection under, 23

foreign surveillance and, 162–171

minimization procedures and, 156–158

oversight of surveillance by, 247

reform of, 309

expectation of privacy, Fourth Amendment protection for, 190

external oversight of surveillance, 244–262, 295

Facebook, 165

facial recognition technology, 55, 129

facility, defined, 210, 252

false positives, in terrorism analysis, 94–95, 97–98

FBI (Federal Bureau of Investigation). see Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI)

fear, terrorism analysis and, 98

Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI)

back door searches and, 158–161

black bag jobs by, 178

Boston Marathon bombing and, 77–79

Charlie Hebdo magazine attacks and, 79

COINTELPRO domestic spy program, 45

COINTELPRO program and, 183

Congressional limits on powers of, 183–184

counterintelligence activities, 6

domestic intelligence gathering by, 69–70

“Don’t Be A Puppet” education tool of, 94

encryption technology and, 265

FISC certification procedures and, 116–119

founding of, 178

going dark campaign and, 277

history of surveillance abuses by, 131–133

infiltration, internment, tax audits and deportation tactics and, 136

information sharing by, 83–85

investigation of King by, 133–135

investigations of whistleblowers by, 46–50

law enforcement malware from, 277

minimization procedures, 37–38

Moussaoui investigation and, 73

secret dossiers of, 137

Senate investigation into call data collection by, 10–17

Verizon call data obtained by, 9–10

Federal Communications Commission (FCC), 165

federal surveillance power. see also USA PATRIOT Act, see also Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Act (FISA), see also Executive Order 12333 (EO 12333)

current abuses and, 138–140

debates concerning, 150–151

domestic intelligence and, 103–104

Executive Branch expansion of, 176–178, 183–184

failure of external oversight over, 244–262

foreign surveillance and, 165

history of, 178

lies and misrepresentations concerning, 104–106

minimization procedures and, 156–158

mission limits of agencies and, 112–115

national security justifications for, 5

online data collection and, 57

poor legal constraints on, 4, 7–8, 44–45

scope of, 9–10, 24–26

selectors system and, 32–33

Senate investigation into, 10–17

Snowden’s revelations concerning, 41–43

support of FBI activities and, 133–135

terrorism used as justification for, 92

USA PATRIOT Act expansion of, 192–199

Federal Trade Commission, 265, 285

Feinstein, Dianne, 39, 61, 81, 247

Senate investigation into call data collection and, 10–17

surveillance of foreign countries, 169–170

Felten, Edward, 60–61

fiber optic technology

warrantless wiretapping and, 205–213, 256

FireChat, 279

First Amendment

fusion center data collection and, 140–142

surveillance as violation of, 131, 138–140

FISA PR/TT program, 201–202, 204

FISC (Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Court). see Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Court (FISC)

Five Eyes partnership, 118

FLAME software, 273

FOGGYBOTTOM, 267

FOIA (Freedom of Information Act). See Freedom of Information Act (FOIA)

Fonda, Jane, 132

foreign governments

agent of a foreign power test and, 184–186, 210, 213, 249, 304

hacking by, 283

Internet regulation by, 168–170

laws on foreign surveillance of, 168–170

surveillance of Americans by, 149–150

Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Act (FISA), 28–30, 184n. 15

9/11 Commission investigation of, 73

authorization for surveillance of Americans under, 106–115

call data collection authorization by, 85–90

minimization procedures under, 156

Patriot Act revisions to, 196–199

pen register collection and, 83, 103

provisions of, 184–186

STELLARWIND violations of, 192–196

warrantless wiretapping under, 31–32

Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Act Amendments Act of 2008 (FISAAA). see also Section 702 (FISAAA)

domestic provisions, 185–186

reform of, 304–313

section 702 of, 116, 213–216

upcoming expiration of, 291

Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Court (FISC)

back door searches and, 158–161

call data collection oversight and, 10–17

certification procedures and, 116–119

multi-communications transactions, 124–127

oversight of surveillance by, 248–255, 298

public accountability for, 292

rejection of expanded government surveillance powers by, 196–199

special needs exception rulings, 235

warrantless wiretapping under, 237

Yahoo! declassification challenge and, 59

Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Court of Review (FISC-R), 196–199, 235, 298

foreign surveillance

“about collection” phenomenon, 121–123

agent of a foreign power test and, 184–186, 210, 213, 249, 304

American interests impacted by, 3, 106–115, 303

Congressional oversight of, 247

contact chaining technique and, 103–104

DEA use of, 104–106

Executive Order 12333 (EO 12333) and, 23

FISA provisions concerning, 184–186

“foreignness” determination, 123–124

Fourth Amendment protections and, 172–175

government policies based on, 9

information sharing and, 74–76

judicial oversight of, 248–255

law enforcement interaction with, 73

minimization procedures and, 37–38, 156–158

national foreign intelligence and, 5

of online consumers, 165

politics of, 186

privacy rights and, 3

proximity of Americans to foreign targets and, 121–123

scope of US activity, 19–24

section 702 (FISAAA) policies and, 116–120

warrantless wiretapping and, 236, 237

foreign telecommunications companies, network security agreements with, 165

Fourth Amendment

back door searches and, 158

Congressional and court rulings and, 178–186

criminal investigations and, 73, 180–181

definitions of surveillance and, 29–30

foreign surveillance exclusion from, 185–186

future of modern surveillance and, 240–243

historical framework for, 172–175

litigation involving, 1

modern surveillance technology and, 221–224

pen register (pen trap) collection protection, 187–191

phone call data collection and, 13–14, 187–191, 200–201, 224–232

reasonable expectation of privacy and, 178–186

warrantless wiretapping protections and, 205, 232–240

Fox News, surveillance of journalists from, 147

France, surveillance laws in, 168–170

Freedom of Information Act (FOIA), 2

multi-communications transaction data and, 124–127

Freeh, Louis, 264

fusion centers, 140–142, 146

G+ social network, 64

gag orders, 311

GAO (Government Accountability Office), 150

GCHQ (Global Communications Headquarters). see Global Communications Headquarters (GCHQ) (UK)

Gellman, Barton, 18–19, 41

Gemalto company, 274

George, Richard, 283

Gilmore, John, 7

Glennon, Michael, 246, 261, 296

global commerce, impact of foreign surveillance on, 167–168

Global Communications Headquarters (GCHQ) (UK)

Belgacom hack, 270

encryption of data and, 63–64

Five Eyes partnership and, 163–165

foreign surveillance by, 21–22, 109, 269

terrorism analysis and, 97–98

Global Crossing (Network Operations Center), 165

Gmail, 165

Going Dark campaign, 277, 278, 280

going dark strategy, 277

Goldsmith, Jack, 177, 207

Gonzales, Alberto, 16, 200–201, 252

Google

encryption of data by, 62–64

surveillance of data from, 109, 234n. 19, 269

Gorman, Siobhan, 49

Government Accountability Office (GAO), 150

Government Communications Security Bureau (GCSB), (NZ) 163–165

government surveillance policies. see also Executive Order 12333 (EO 12333)

current abuses and, 138–140

domestic intelligence and, 103–104

Executive Branch expansion of, 176–178

failure of external oversight over, 244–262

foreign surveillance and, 165

Fourth Amendment protections, 172–175

history of, 178

lies and misrepresentations concerning, 104–106

minimization procedures and, 156–158

mission limits of agencies and, 112–115

national security justifications for, 5

of authoritarian regimes, 168–170

online data collection and, 57–60

poor legal constraints on, 4, 7–8, 44–45

scope of, 9–10, 24–26

selectors system and, 32–33

Senate investigation into, 10–17

Snowden’s revelations concerning, 41–43

support of FBI activities and, 133–135

terrorism used as justification for, 92

Gowdy, Trey, 119, 297

GPS data

global data collection and, 21–22

surveillance using, xii, 54, 230, 240

Green, Matthew, 276

Greenwald, Glenn, 9, 16, 41, 206, 229

PRISM story by, 18–19

GROK, 267

Guardian, The, 9

PRISM story in, 18

GUMFISH, 267

hacking of data

Chinese hacking of US sites, 149

espionage involving, 2–3

by foreign governments, 62–64, 283

from commercial online services, 57–60

by law enforcement, 68, 168–170

by NSA, 18–19, 21–22, 263, 266

politics of, 285

security risks of, 276–287

Harding, Warren G., 175, 183

Hasan, Nidal (Maj.), 80

Haseltine, Eric, 68

Hayden, Michael, 44, 47, 50, 65, 74, 281

Hazmi, Nawaf al-, 71–73

Headley, David, 83–85

Healy, Kieran, 62

“Hemisphere” project, 104

Hepting v. ATT aka In re Nat. Sec. Agency Telecommunications Records Litigation, 633 F.Supp.2d 949 (NDCal 2009), ix

Hersh, Seymour, 50, 182

Hidalgo, Cesar, 61

Hogan, Thomas F., 160–161

Holder, Eric, 104n. 4, 147, 148

Holley, Robert J., 84

homeland information reports (HIRs), 141

homosexuals

surveillance of, 137, 142

Homsany, Ramsey, 168

Hoover, J. Edgar, 52, 76, 178

abuses of surveillance by, 131–133, 136–138

career of, 131

investigation of King by, 133

“hot pursuit” principle, warrantless wiretapping and, 234

hotline call data private information from, 60–62

House Intelligence Committee, 83

Howard, Malcolm, 204, 210, 230, 250, 252

HTTPS protocol, 64

Huawei company, 288

human intelligence (HUMINT), 5, 9

Human Rights Watch, 110, 148

human rights workers

surveillance of, 169–170, 222

HUMINT (human intelligence), 5, 9

Hunt, Ira “Gus”, 55, 70

image recognition software, 129

Immersion program, 61

inadvertent collection

digital technology and, 221

growth of, 51–52

NSA definition of, 36, 46

incarceration rate in US, 130

incidental collection, 36, 108

infiltration, surveillance through, 135–138, 142–147

information assurance services, NSA weaknesses and, 263

information sharing

back door searches and, 158–161, 307–309

counterterrorism measures and, 80–85

of criminal and intelligence data, 196–199

domestic intelligence data, 104–106

fusion centers, 140–142

government infrastructure barriers to, 74–76

intelligence community barriers to, 70–74

“Raw Take” sharing, 198

Inglis, John C., 102

intellectual property

domestic surveillance as violation of, 105

hacking of, 287

intelligence community

9/11 Commission investigation and, 70–74

absence of performance metrics for, 80–85

demonization of, 50–51

minimization procedures of agencies in, 112–115

misdirection and misrepresentation by, 27–28, 39–40

oversight of, 245

perception of terrorism risk and, 67–74

structure of, 5

Intelligence Community Whistleblower Protection Act, 42

intelligence data

categories of, 5

vocabulary use for, 27–28

internal oversight of surveillance, 244–262, 294

Internal Revenue Service (IRS), political surveillance by, 146

International Telecommunications Union, 169

Internet. see also cybersecurity

absence of privacy on, 219–221

by-catch of data on, 124–127

crime involving, 1

data localization proposals and, 168–170

economic impact of surveillance on, 167–168

foreign government regulation of, 168–170

foreign use of, 165

Fourth Amendment protections and, 225

limits of data collection from, 80–85

NSA data collection from, 21–23, 103–104, 121–123, 253

STELLARWIND surveillance of, 192–196

surveillance of traffic on, 53–57

third party data collection on, 187–191

Internet of Things, 56–57

Internet Service Providers (ISPs), 53–54, 62–65

internment, surveillance and, 135–138

Investigatory Powers Bill (IPB) (UK) (Snooper’s Charter), 169

IP addresses, surveillance of, 53–54

iPhone devices, global data collection from, 21–22, see also mobile phones

IRS (Internal Revenue Service), political surveillance by, 146

Israel, NSA information sharing with, 149–150

Jackson, Jesse, 133

Jaffer, Jameel, 222, 239

Japanese-Americans, internment of, 136

Jeffress, Amy, 160–161

Jewel v. NSA, x

Jinping, Xi, 287

Joel, Alex, 244

Johnson, Jeh, 98

Johnson, Lyndon Baines, 133

journalists, surveillance of, 147–149, 178, 222, 293

judicial oversight of surveillance, 13–14, see also specific courts

FISA provisions and, 184–186

future challenges for, 297–300

internal oversight and, 296

limitations of, 248–255

July 7 2005 London suicide bombings, 79

Kane, John L., 238, 241

Katz v. United States, 389 U.S. 347 (1967), x, 178–186, 187, 218, 220, 224

Keith case. see United States v. United States District Court (Keith case), 407 U.S. 297 (1972)

Kennedy, John F., 134

Kennedy, Robert Jr., 134

key escrow systems, 264

kidnapping, terrorism as justification for, 92, 156–158, 223

King, Martin Luther Jr., 5

FBI surveillance of, 133–135, 178

Klayman, Larry, 228

Klein, Mark, 45, 205, 206, 213, 293

Kollar-Kotelly, Colleen, 201–202, 204, 212, 225, 226, 249, 252

Korematsu v. United States, 321 U.S. 760 (1944), x

Kris, David, 158, 211

Kyllo v. United States, 533 U.S. 27 (2001), x

labor activists, FBI surveillance of, 175

Landau, Susan, 264, 283

language of intelligence, 27–28

surveillance law and technology, 39–40

terrorism and, 92

Large-Content FISA, 210, 212

law enforcement

call data collection and, 54–55, 87–88

digital surveillance by, 53

domestic data collection by, 104–106

federal surveillance and, 68, 175–176, 184–186

fusion center information sharing and, 140–142

hacking of data by, 68, 168–170

intelligence community cooperation with, 196–199

legal requests for data from, 62–65

parallel construction by, 105, 239

pen register data collection and, 189–191

political surveillance and, 128–131, 145–147

targeted surveillance by, 142–145

third party data collection and, 187–191

lawful purpose standard, minimization procedures and, 156–158

Leahy, Patrick, 82, 208, 251

legal framework for surveillance

after-the-fact justifications, 192

agency language and, 39–40

definitions of surveillance and, 28–30

domestic call data collection and, 15–17

Fourth Amendment protections and, 172–175

global data collection and absence of, 23–24

government regulatory policy, 4

ineffectiveness of, 5

intelligence analysis and, 68

mass surveillance and, 9

politics of, 178–186

power of metadata and, 302

privacy rights and, 172

legal immunity

in FISAAA provisions, 213–216

secret laws granting, 17

Leon, Richard J., 228

Level 3 corporation, 269

Levy, Edward, 183–184

library lending logs, 203–205, see also Section 215 (USA PATRIOT Act)

privacy protection for, 12, 101

Litt, Robert, 111–112, 152, 153, 244, 308

local data storage regulations, 168–170

Lockheed-Martin, 287

Loomis, Ed, 46–49

LOVEINT investigation, 15–17, 76, 153

loyalty card data, 56

Mailer, Norman, 132

MAINWAY intelligence tool, 22–23, 38

Manget, Fred F., 68

Man-in-the-Middle attacks, 270

Manjoo, Farhad, 78

marginalized groups, political surveillance of, 145–147

mass surveillance. see also bulk data collection

Boston Marathon bombing and, 78–79

limitations of, 80–85

NSA misuse of, 268

by NSA, 3

post-September 11th increase in, 67–74, 76

as threat to democracy, 7–8, 24–26

McLaughlin, Mary, 231

MCTs (multi-communications transactions), 124–127, 257

McVeigh, Timothy, 67–68, 104

media coverage of surveillance

domestic call data collection and, 16

investigation into PRISM by, 18–19

surveillance of journalists and, 147–149

medical records, encryption of, 62

Médecins du Monde, NSA surveillance of, 110

Merkel, Angela, 169–170

metadata

analysis of, 60–62

call data as, 10, 60–62, 225, 251

Fourth Amendment protections and, 242

IP address surveillance, 53–54

NSA collection of, 20, 34–36

power of, 302

privacy violations of, 65

terrorism intelligence using, 90–98

Microsoft Windows, crash reporting system of, 64

Mihdhar, Khalid al-, 71–73

minimization procedures, 111

back door searches and, 158

current status of, 152–154

data collection and, 75–76, 112–115, 211

false promise of, 153–154

FISC weakening of, 249

foreign online user exclusion from, 165

importance of, 199n. 16

lack of oversight for, 156

NSA definition of, 37–38

policies guiding, 156–158

proposed reforms for, 161

reasonable standard and, 243

reform of, 307–309

secret rules for, 154–155

minority groups, targeted surveillance of, 138–140, 142–145

misdirection and misrepresentation

in intelligence community language, 39–40

of Snowden’s activities, 41–43

mission creep, in surveillance, 51–52, 180–181

Mitchell, Andrea, 34

Moalin, Basaaly, 82, 83, 92

mobile phones. see also telephone call data collection

data collection from, 9–10, 57, 85–90

key escrow systems for, 264

NSA hacking of, 266

Monaco, Lisa, 150

Mongols Motorcycle Club, 141

Monteilh, Craig, 143

Morrell, Michael, 88, 228, 230

Moussaoui, Zacarias, 73, 197

Mueller, Robert S., 69, 200–201

Mukasey, Michael, 183

multi-communications transactions (MCTs), 124–127, 257

Upstream collection of, 259

Mumbai, India 2008 attacks, 79, 83–85

murder, terrorism vs., 91–92

MUSCULAR program, 63–64, 97–98, 109

Muslim-Americans, targeted surveillance of, 142–145

My Lai massacre, 44–45

MYSTIC global data collection system, 20

National Commission on Terrorist Attacks Upon the United States (9/11 Commission), 70–74

National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST), 274

National Research Council (NRC), 89–90

national security

9/11 Commission review of, 70–74

Executive Branch expansion of surveillance and, 176–178

government agencies involved in, 5, 23–24, 104–106

hacking and, 276–287

journalists’ reporting and, 147–149

legal immunity and, 17

misuse of data collected for, 24–26

post-September 11 shift in, 69–70

privacy protection as enhancement of, 171

privacy violations in name of, 100, 150–151

regulation of national security practices, 44–45, 180–181

terrorism threat assessment and, 77, 92, 98

warrantless wiretapping and, 234

National Security Act of 1947, 248

National Security Agency (NSA)

9/11 Commission investigation of, 70–74

Boston Marathon bombing investigation of, 77–79

call data collection by, 5, 10–17, 61, 85–90

contact chaining system of, 14–15, 47, 101–102

data collection technology used by, 21–22, 33–36, 62–65

encryption policies of, 264

foreign surveillance by, 6, 9, 19–24, 106–115

German surveillance by, 169–170

information sharing by, 83–85, 149–150

insecurity in policies of, 263–289

Internet data collection violations by, 21–23, 103–104, 121–123, 253

mass surveillance by, 3

minimization procedures of, 37–38

PRISM program of, 18–19

secret surveillance posts built by, 45

signals intelligence from, 6

Snowden leak and, 2–3

Snowden’s career at, 41

spying partnerships of, 163–165

warrantless wiretapping by, 205–213

whistleblowers within, 46

National Security Letters, 186

Netanyahu, Benjamin, 149

Network Operations Center (Global Crossing), 165

networked data, 56–57

New America Foundation, 168

New York City Police Department (NYPD), targeted surveillance by, 143

New York Times, The, 16, 36

NSA surveillance reporting in, 254

on warrantless wiretapping, 203

reporting on NSA surveillance by, 44–45, 48–50, 116

STELLARWIND violations reported in, 206, 250

surveillance of browsing data on, 53

surveillance of journalists from, 148

targeted advertising in, 58

New York Times, The,

STELLARWIND violations reported in, 200–201

Nixon, Richard, 44–45, 52, 76, 132, 138

No Place to Hide (Greenwald), 24

NOBUS ideology, 280

non-governmental organizations

German surveillance of, 169–170

NSA surveillance of, 110–111

surveillance of, 147–149

non-state threats

as justification for surveillance, 24–26

terrorism risks and, 67–74

Northrup-Grumman, 287

NSA (National Security Agency). see National Security Agency (NSA)

Obama v. Klayman, 800 F.3d 559 (DCCir. 2015), x, 228

Obama, Barack, 38–39

Chinese hacking and, 287

domestic intelligence collection and, 5, 17, 106, 202

on email data surveillance, 18

German surveillance and, 169–170

key escrow technology and, 281

on minimization procedures, 113–114

NSA hacking activities and, 272

oversight of surveillance under, 244

phone call data collection and, 89–90, 100, 230

PRISM program and, 165

surveillance of journalists under, 147–149

Occupy Wall Street, 135, 140, 146

Office of Intelligence Policy and Review (OIPR) (DOJ), 49

Office of Legal Counsel (OLC) (US Department of Justice), 17

STELLARWIND investigation and, 194–196

Office of Personnel and Management (US), Chinese hacking of, 149

Office of the Director of National Intelligence (ODNI), 13

multi-communications transactions and, 125

Oklahoma City bombing, 67–68, 91, 104, 183

Oliver, John, 42, 123–124, 162

Olmstead v. United States, 277 U.S. 438 (1928), x, 156, 175–176, 179, 231

Omnibus Crime Control and Safe Streets Act of 1968 (Wiretap Act), 205

online chat rooms, data collection from, 121–123

online transactions

data local proposals and, 168–170

foreign commercial use of, 165

surveillance of, 53, 199–203

targeted advertising based on, 57–60

oversight of surveillance

Congressional oversight, 247, 296

executive (interbranch) oversight, 291

future challenges for, 294–300

internal oversight, 294

judicial oversight, 13–14, 297–300

Owning the Net initiative, 268, 272

PAA (Protect America Act), 59, 212, 235, 237

packet injection attacks, 282

Palmer Raids of 1919–20, 131

parallel construction techniques, 105, 178, 239

Paris, France, November 2015 attacks in, 87

pattern matching, terrorism intelligence and, 90–98

PCLOB (Privacy and Civil Liberties Oversight Board). see Privacy and Civil Liberties Oversight Board (PCLOB)

peace movement, FBI surveillance of, 136–138, 175

pen register data collection, xi, 83, 103, 184n. 15, 185, 186, see also metadata

absence of supervision in, 250

Fourth Amendment protections and, 224

STELLARWIND violations of, 192–196

third party doctrine and, 187–191

trap and trace statutes, 189–191

Pentagon Papers, 44–45

People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals (PETA), 146

People’s Republic of China, hacking of US data by, 149, 287

performance metrics for intelligence,

demand for, 80–85

limits of counterterrorism analysis and, 150–151

Perrow, Charles, 284

PETA (People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals), 146

Petraeus, David, 52

Petrobras, 110

phone dragnet. see telephone call data collection

physical subversion, NSA use of, 272

Pike, Otis G., 182

PIPA (Protect IP Act), 7

platform companies, gatekeeping role of, 57–60

Poitras, Laura, 18–19, 41, 50, 206

political surveillance, 51–52, 131–133, 142, 145–147, 169–170

power dynamics, surveillance and, 131–133

Power Wars (Savage), 201–202

PPD-28 (presidential directive), 113–114, 303

minimization procedures and, 156–158

pre-Revolutionary America

surveillance in, 172–175

President’s Review Group on Intelligence and Communications Technologies, 230, 288, 303

president-proof surveillance policies, 262, 295

PRISM (NSA classified program), 18–19

assessment of, 83–85

certification procedures under, 117

domestic surveillance under, 31–32, 106–115, 121–123

EU data protection laws and, 167

foreigners’ privacy and, 163–165

hearings on, 34–36, 169–170

impact on online commerce of, 165

incidental collection by, 36

limits of, 82

reform of, 308

section 702 provisions, 214

warrantless wiretapping under, 256

Privacy and Civil Liberties Oversight Board (PCLOB), 82, 83

“about collection” phenomenon and, 121–123

“foreignness” determination and, 123–124

limits of mass surveillance and, 113

metadata collection and, 34–36

minimization procedures and, 154–155

misdirection/misrepresentation of surveillance and, 39

on phone data collection, 230

section 702 (FISAAA) provisions and, 118, 121–123, 215

privacy protections. see also reasonable expectation of privacy standard

back door searches and, 158

Census data and, 136

cyber sovereignty movement and, 168–170

EU data protection laws and, 167

for email data, 219–221

Five Eyes partnership and, 163–165

for foreign online users, 165

foreign government data collection and, 149–150

foreign government Internet regulations and, 168–170

foreign surveillance and, 3, 162–171

in Fourth Amendment, 172–175

history in US of, 172

litigation involving, 1

national security and, 171

political abuse of, 51–52

public opinion about, 128–131

security and, 150–151

technology innovation as threat to, 57–60

terrorism threat vs., 5

third party data collection and, 187–191

Privacy Shield proposal, 305

private sector

Boston Marathon bombing data from, 78–79

data collection technology data distribution to government and NSA by, 62–65

encryption use in, 264

privilege, surveillance and, 131–133

probability distribution, terrorism analysis and, 95–97

probable cause standard

in 9/11 Commission report, 74–76

back door searches and, 158–161

criminal activity and, 73–74

federal surveillance and, 182

in FISA provisions, 184–186

in Fourth Amendment, 173

law enforcement surveillance and, 236n. 23

section 702 and, 116–119

STELLARWIND program and, 68

program code names, 38

programmatic surveillance, 116–119

Prohibition

federal surveillance and, 175–176

“Project Crisscross”, 104

Protect America Act (PAA), 59, 212, 235, 237

Protect IP Act (PIPA), 7

provider assistance principle

third party doctrine and, 189–191

public accountability for surveillance, 292–294

public opinion

abuses of surveillance and, 138–140

on foreign surveillance, 178–186

anti-Muslim sentiment in, 142–145

perceptions of terrorism risks and, 67–74

resistance to mass surveillance and, 7–8

on surveillance, 128–131

public-private partnerships for surveillance, 57–60

purged information, NSA procedures for, 37–38

Qaeda, al-

9/11 Commission investigation of, 70–74

telephone monitoring of, 17

World Trade Center 1993 attack by, 67

Quakers, surveillance of, 132, 137, 146

QUANTUM global data collection system, 20, 22

Quattrone, Frank, 130

query, NSA definition of, 38

radicalization theories, 94

RAND Corporation, 44–45

“Raw Take” sharing orders, 198

reasonable articulable suspicion (RAS). see also Section 215 (USA PATRIOT Act)

call data collection and, 10, 13–14

NSA contact chaining and, 14–15

reasonable expectation of privacy, 240

reasonable expectation of privacy standard

electronic surveillance collection and, 29–30

Supreme Court ruling on, 178–186

third party data collection and, 187–191

“reasonably designed” requirement, 158–161

Regin system, 270, 271

relevance standard, domestic surveillance data collection and, 103, 204

religious groups, targeted surveillance of, 142–145

Reno, Janet, 73, 183

Richards, Rebecca, 261

Richelieu, Armand Jean du Plessis (Cardinal), 128

Riley v. California, 134 S.Ct. 2473 (2014), xi, 242

Risen, James, 148

Roark, Diane, 48, 49

Roberts, John, 243

Rogers, Mike, 39, 119, 281, 297

Roosevelt, Franklin Delano, 70, 175, 176–178

Roosevelt, Theodore, 70, 175

Rosen, James, surveillance of, 147

Rotella, Sebastian, 84

Rudmin, Floyd, 95

Rumsfeld, Donald, 74

Russia. see also Soviet Union

warnings concerning Tsarnaevs from, 77–79

SANS organization, 273

Savage, Charlie, 201–202, 252

SAVAGERABBIT, 267

Schlanger, Margaret, 254

Schmidt, Eric, 64, 128, 287

Schneier, Bruce, 58

Schrems v. Facebook, Case No. C-362/14 (2015), xi, 305

Screening of Passengers by Observation Techniques (SPOT) checklist, 93

search warrants. see also warrantless searches

Congressional legislation on, 180–181

DEA use of, 104–106

FISA provisions concerning, 184–186

Fourth Amendment protections and, 172–175

lack of European regulations on, 168–170

9/11 Commission recommendations concerning, 74–76

surveillance of journalists and, 147–149

search, NSA definition of, 38

secrecy

in legal constraints on surveillance, 44–45

levels in surveillance of, 4

reduction of, 291

revelations on surveillance and end to, 203–205

vocabulary of intelligence and, 27–28

secret law, in United States, 17, 292–294

section 215 (USA PATRIOT Act). See also library lending logs

Alert List, 14

call data collection under, 12, 15–17, 100

foreign surveillance powers under, 185–186

ineffectiveness of, 251

judicial oversight of, 260

tangible things, 203–205

section 702 (FISAAA). see also multi-communications transactions, see also Upstream surveillance program, see also PRISM

Americans’ proximity to foreign targets and, 121–123

assessment of data collection under, 83–85

back door searches and, 158–161

by-catch phenomenon and, 124–127

constitutionality of, 222

domestic surveillance and, 106–115, 116, 119–120

expiration of, 304

“foreignness” determination and, 123–124

judicial oversight of, 260

legal immunity in, 213–216

minimization procedures under, 156

overview of, 116–119

upcoming expiration of, 291

warrantless wiretapping under, 232–240

Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC), politically motivated investigations by, 130

security risks

bounded rationality concerning, 284

hacking and, 266

of hacking, 276–287

of surveillance, 291

security, tools for enhancing, 279

Sedition Act (1918), 131, 175

selector-based data collection

“about collection” phenomenon and, 121–123

definition of, 32–33

section 702 (FISAAA) provisions, 214

Sensenbrenner, James, 16–17

September 11, 2001 attacks

intelligence failures leading to, 70–74

surveillance policies as response to, 67–74

Sethi, Arjun S., 94

Shabaab, al-, terrorist group, 83, 92

Signal software, 279

signals intelligence (SIGINT)

classification of, 5

definitions of, 28–30

encryption technology and, 265

foreign intelligence data and, 9

in Israel, 149–150

metadata in, 34–36

NSA role in, 22–23, 156–158

regulations relating to, 38–39, 112–115

US Signals Intelligence Directive SP0018, 75, 111

Silberman, Laurence, 138

Silverglate, Harvey, 129

Simon, David, 87

Smith v. Maryland, 442 U.S. 735 (1979), xi, 187–191, 200–201, 220, 224, 225, 228, 242

Snooper’s Charter. see Investigatory Powers Bill (IPB) (UK)

Snowden, Edward, 2–3, 7

on abuse of surveillance, 138

on call data collection, 100

classified documents released by, 19

on data collection, 87

debate over revelations by, 41–43

on global surveillance activities, 24

on encryption, 274, 276

legal protection for, 293

on limits of mass surveillance, 77, 82

on NSA surveillance practices, 24, 36, 62

minimization procedures disclosed by, 113, 154–155

Oliver interview with, 162

on section 702 (FISAAA) surveillance, 121–123

targeted surveillance activities in documents leaked by, 143

as whistleblower, 50–51, 106–115

social networking

encryption of, 62

surveillance and, 57–60

SOD (Special Operations Division) (DEA), 105

SOPA (Stop Online Piracy Act), 7

Sotomayor, Sonia, 56, 231, 239, 240

Soviet Union. see also Russia

US surveillance of, 68

special needs exception, warrantless wiretapping and, 234

Special Operations Division (SOD) (DEA), 105

Specter, Arlen, 207

Spock, Benjamin, 132

Sprigman, Christopher, 53

Sprint, surrender of call data by, 10

Stamos, Alex, 281

standing doctrine, Fourth Amendment protections and, 222

State Department, 265, 285

State of War (Risen), 148

state privacy laws, 172–175, 218n. 4

stateless terrorism, as justification for surveillance, 24–26

Station Table, call data evaluations, 14

statistical analysis, terrorism intelligence and, 95–97

STELLARWIND surveillance program

absence of oversight for, 245

absence of surveillance over, 250

American citizens included in, 11–13, 16, 106

encryption technology and and, 65

FISA statute and, 235

FISC-R and, 196–199

investigation of, 192–196

legal status of, 153–154

post-September 11 focus of, 68

warrantless searches and wiretapping in, 116, 205–213

whistleblower revelations concerning, 48–50

Sterling, Jeffrey, 148

Stern, Carl, 45

Stevenson, Adlai, 133

Stevenson, Adlai Jr., 132

Stone, Harlan Fiske, 175, 183

Stop Online Piracy Act (SOPA), 7

Stored Communications Act (SCA), 189–191

“strong crypto”, 264

Stuxnet malware, 282

subpoenas, for phone call data, 104–106

superwarrants, 180

Supreme Court (US), 181

digital surveillance rulings, 242

Fourth Amendment protections and, 179, 221–224

privacy rights and, 172

search and seizure rulings by, 175–176

STELLARWIND abuses and, 200–201

telephone call data collection and rulings of, 224–232

third party data collection and, 187–191

warrantless wiretapping rulings of, 181

whistleblower protections and, 44–45

surveillance. see also specific forms, such as digital surveillance, See also digital surveillance

abuses of, 5, 7–8, 24–26, 131–133, 138–140

definitions of, 28–30

foreign government regulations on, 168–170

Fourth Amendment protections and, 172–175

future of, 290–292

by Germany, 169–170

history in US of, 172

information sharing role in, 74–76

lack of European regulations on, 168–170

legal regulation of, ix–xiii, 4

limits on effectiveness of, 77

mission creep in, 51–52, 180–181

power and privilege and history of, 131–133

in pre-Revolutionary America, 172–175, 217

public opinion about, 128–131

public-private partnerships in, 57–60

risk-reward tradeoff in, 300

secret laws on, 17

Snowden’s revelations concerning, 41–43

technology and growth of, 3

vocabulary of, 27–28

Tailored Access Organization (TAO), 267

Tamm, Thomas, 49–50, 206, 293

targeted data collection

advertisers’ use of, 57–60

call data as, 85–90

counterterrorism efforts and, 79–80

definitions of, 31

mass surveillance vs., 90–98

political surveillance and, 145–147

public accountability in, 292

regulation of, 31–32

warrantless wiretapping and, 31–32, 233

tax audits, surveillance and, 135–138

Tea Party movement, 135, 146

technology

civil liberties and, 1

growth of mass surveillance and, 3, 24–26

terrorism and limits of, 94–95

telephone call data collection. see also Section 215 (USA PATRIOT Act), See also mobile phones

categories of, 28–30

Congressional and court cooperation on, 178–186

continued justification for, 85–90

Fourth Amendment protections and, 13–14, 187–191, 200–201, 224–232

government collection of, 9–10, 54–55

history of surveillance using, 175–176

key escrow technology and, 264

limits in counterterrorism of, 80–85

NSA global surveillance of, 19–24

privacy protections and, 60–62

reasonable expectation of privacy standard and, 29–30, 178–186

Senate investigation into collection of, 10–17

STELLARWIND violations of, 192–196

third party doctrine and, 187–191

Terror Presidency, The (Goldsmith), 177

terrorism

criminal violence vs., 90–98

definitions of, 5n. 1

by Islamic non-state groups, 142–145

legal definition of, 91–92

mass surveillance and detection of, 90–98

public perceptions of, 138–140

surveillance policies as response to, 67–74

Terrorist Surveillance Program (TSP), 17, 207, 252

Terrorists Identities Datamart Environment (TIDE), 78

The Wire (television series), 87

ThinThread project, 46–49, 295

third party doctrine

Fourth Amendment protections and, 225

phone data and email privacy, 219–221

phone data collection and, 57–60, 189–191

phone data collection and, 242

STELLARWIND investigation, 194–196

This American Life (radio program), 143

Three Felonies a Day (Silverglate), 129

TIDE (Terrorists Identities Datamart Environment). see Terrorists Identities Datamart Environment (TIDE)

Title III (Wiretap Act), 180–181, 187–191, 205

torture, terrorism as justification for, 92, 158, 223

Total oil and gas company, 110

tower dumps, of mobile phone data, 54–55

TrailBlazer surveillance tool, 47, 50, 295

transit authority, expansion of, 210

transparency in surveillance, proposals for, 310

Transportation Security Administration (TSA), 93

Tsarnaev, Dzhokhar, 77–79

Tsarnaev, Tamerlan, 77–79

TURBINE system, 268

Twitter, 87, 169–170

Tye, John, 22, 110, 111, 152

US Constitution, surveillance regulation and. See also Fourth Amendment, see also First Amendment

US National Counterterrorism Center, 78

USS Cole, attack on, 72

Udall, Mark, 83, 254

UK-USA Agreement, 163–165

UNICEF, NSA surveillance of, 110

Uniform Resource Locator (URL), surveillance of, 53, 225

United Kingdom. see also Global Communications Headquarters (GCHQ)

global data collection by, 21–22

government data collection in, 63–64

Investigatory Powers Bill, 169

July 7th 2005 London suicide bombings, 79

surveillance regulations in, 168–170

“United States persons,” NSA definition of, 38–39

United States Signals Intelligence Directive SP0018 (USSID-18), 75, 111, 112, 156–158

United States v. Davis, 754 F.3d 1205 (11th Cir. 2014), rev. en banc 785 F.3d 498 (11th Cir. 2015), 240

United States v. Ganias, 755 F.3d 125 (2d Cir. 2014), xi, 241

United States v. Jacobsen, 466 U.S. 109 (1984), xii, 220

United States v. Jones, 32 S.Ct. 945 (2012), xii, 230, 240

United States v. Miller, 425 U.S. 435 (1976), xii, 187–191, 220, 225

United States v. Muhtorov, 2-cr-00033-JLK (D. Colo.), xii, 238, 241

United States v. Truong, 629 F.2d 908 (4th Cir. 1980), xii, 236

United States v. United States District Court (Keith case), 407 U.S. 297 (1972), xiii, 181–184, 235

United States v. Warshak, 631 F.3d 266 (6th Cir. 2010), xiii, 220, 232

updates, security risks and, 273

Upstream surveillance program, 18, 214, see also Section 702 (FISAAA)

about collection in, 305

assessment of, 83–85

domestic data collection, 106–115, 225

inadvertent data collection by, 36

multi-communication transactions data and, 124–127

multi-communications data and, 259

warrantless wiretapping under, 257

USA Freedom Act, 7, see also Section 215 (USA PATRIOT Act)

back door searches and, 160

curbs on phone data collection in, 231

revisions to bulk data collection under, 103–104

telephone data collection and, 31–32, 87, 199n. 17

USA PATRIOT Act, 4, see also Section 215 (USA Patriot Act)

federal surveillance powers under, 185–186

post-September 11 passage of, 73–74

section 215 on call data collection, 12, 15–17

surveillance abuses in, 196–199

USA Patriot Act II, 192–196

USA Today, 10, 12, 16, 203

USSID-18. see United States Signals Intelligence Directive SP0018 (USSID-18)

Vatican, German surveillance of, 169–170

Verilli, Donald, 239

Verizon

STELLARWIND controversy and, 200

surrender of call data by, 9–10

Vieques Island protests, 91

Vietnam War, opposition to, 44–45, 132, 136–138, 236

Vinson, Roger, 212

violations by intelligence agencies, absence of remedies for, 112–115

violent extremism

rarity of, 96n. 43

terrorism vs., 91–92

vocabulary of intelligence, 27–28

“wall” between criminal and intelligence surveillance, 73, 196–199

Walton, Reggie, 14, 253, 258

war on terror, surveillance policies and, 223

warrantless searches and wiretapping, 31–32, 106–115, see also wiretapping

back door searches and, 158–161

congressional and court regulations of, 180–181

executive branch expansion of, 176–178

federal surveillance and, 175–176

foreign surveillance and, 236

Fourth Amendment protections and, 172–175

intelligence data collection and, 74–76

limiting scope of, 305

section 702 (FISAAA) provisions allowing, 232–240

in STELLARWIND program, 205–213

warrants. see also search warrants

Washington Post, The

on Global Crossing Network, 165

on inadvertent data collection, 36

on MUSCULAR program, 63

reporting of mistreatment of Muslim Americans, 144

section 702 (FISAAA) covered in, 121–123, 123–124

terrorist surveillance reporting in, 18

watchlists

Boston Marathon bombing and, 78

false positives in, 94–95

FBI’s use of, 72, 131

Watergate investigation, 181–184

web browsing traffic

economic impact of surveillance on, 167–168

surveillance of, 53, 109

Weibe, Kirk, 48

Whisper Systems, 279

whistleblowers

investigations of, 46–50

legal protection for, 42

minimization procedures in revelations of, 112–115

protection for, 293

Snowden as, 50–51

value of, 44–45

Wikileaks, 43

Wilson, Douglas, 158, 211

wire communications, defined, 28–30, 184n. 15, 187–191

Wiretap Act (Title III), 180–181, 187–191, 205

wiretapping, 106–115

Congressional legislation on, 180–181

defined, 28–30

encryption technology and, 264

Executive Branch expansion of, 176–178

federal surveillance and, 175–176

Fourth Amendment protections and, 172–175

history of federal surveillance using, 116, 178

section 702 (FISAAA) policies and, 119–120

warrantless wiretapping, 31–32

World Trade Center 1993 attack, 67–68, 91

Wyden, Ronald, 33, 75, 83, 158–161, 254, 297

XKEYSCORE global data collection system, 20

Yahoo!, 59, 234n. 19, 235

encryption of data by, 64

surveillance of data from, 109, 269

Yoo, John, 194–196, 200

Zazi, Najibullah, 85

Zegart, Amy, 80

Zuckerberg, Mark, 165

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