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Index

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  14 December 2018

Martin Williams
Martin Williams
Affiliation:
University of Adelaide

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Type
Chapter
Information
The Nile Basin
Quaternary Geology, Geomorphology and Prehistoric Environments
 , pp. 394 - 406
Publisher: Cambridge University Press
Print publication year: 2019

Index

Abbai, 1, 17, 81, 86see also Blue Nile
Abu Hugar, Sudan 153, 160
Acacus Mts., Libya 227
Accelerated soil erosion 60
Acheulian/Acheulean 45, 119–120, 172, 174, 184, 185, 229, 236, 238, 240, 241, 246, 276, 326, 327, 329, 330, 332
Adiabatic lapse rate, see Lapse rate
Addis Ababa, Ethiopia 11, 62, 89–90
Adrar Bous, Niger 39, 66, 120, 176, 314–315, 327
Aeolian/eolian dust, see Dust
Aeolian/eolian sands, see Dunes
Afar desert, see Afar Rift, and Middle Awash
Afar plume 81
Afar Rift 41, 42, 85, 86, 89, 96, 127, 167, 192, 317, 326, 327, 329
Africa, Northsee Sahara
African Humid Period 87, 105
Afro-Arabian dome 81
Agassiz Basin, North America 273
Ahaggar, see Hoggar
Aïr Mountains, Niger 26, 39, 40, 47, 60, 176, 220, 313, 319
Albedo, drought model 74–77
Alexandria, Egypt 281, 289
Alfreda Nile 207–209
Allerød-Bølling interstadial, see Bølling-Allerød interstadial
Alluvial fan 26, 135, 143
Amazon stone 238
Amino acid racemization dating 33
Anatolia 302, 303
Anatomically Modern Humans, 322, 330, 333see also Out of Africa
artefacts 322
fossils 322
genetic models 323
migrations 322
migration routes 323
past environments 323
Angamma Delta, Chad 279
Animal domestication, see Domestication
Aquatic snail shells 57, 115–117, 121, 123, 140, 145, 206, 214–216, 262–264
Aquifer recharge, see Groundwater
Arabia 41
Arabian Desert
former lakes 324, 325
Arabian-Nubian Shield 36, 37, 258, 268
Arabian Peninsula 36, 323, 324–326, 330, 331, 333
Arabian Sea 31
Arba’in Desert 222–223, 224, 242
Archei, Chad 238
Argon-argon dating 33
Aridity
causes of 26
glacial 199
Aristotle 4
Arkenu, see Jebel Arkenu
Astronomical cycles 42–43
Aswa wrench fault 15, 39
Aswan, Egypt 9, 198, 293, 301
Aswan High Dam, Egypt 3, 15, 69, 79, 164, 172, 198, 239, 259, 290
Asyut (Assiut), Egypt 9, 225
Atbara River, Sudan 1, 5, 15, 17, 28, 45, 71, 81, 94, 95, 164–175, 196–197, 199, 200, 202, 284–285, 292–293, 297
Atbara River
age of 8
alluvial history 172–173
basin area 28, 164
denudation 172
discharge 28, 173
floods 202
headwaters 164
Holocene environments 173–174
palaeochannels 173
periglacial deposits 165
prehistoric sites 172, 174
sediment load 28, 172
valley 174
Aterian 229, 238, 327, 330
Atlantic Ocean 32
influence on climate 243
Atlas Mts. 26, 41, 47, 181, 329
Atlas Mts., glaciation 47
Atmospheric carbon dioxide 272, 273
Atra, Sudan 152
Aurignacian 332
Australia, wetlands, see Flinders Ranges
Australopithecines 85
Awash River, Ethiopia 85
Azaza Damos, Sudan 150
Bab el Mandeb Straits, Red Sea 331, 333
Bahar Dar reservoir 11
Bahariya Oasis, Egypt 224, 242
Bahr el Arab, South Sudan 192
Bahr el Ghazal, Sudan and South Sudan 107, 109, 192
Bahr el Jebel, South Sudan 97, 100, 106, 107, 109
Bahr el Yussef, Egypt, see Fayum
Bahr el Zeraf, South Sudan 109
Bale Mts., Ethiopia, glaciation 45, 87, 166
Barbis, Sudan 184
Basement Complex 15, 36, 39, 145, 156, 178, 257, 267, 268, 284, 326
Baya (Bara), Sudan 184
Bayuda, Sudan 15
Bayuda Desert, Sudan 15, 42, 178, 219
Bayuda volcanic field
Berber, Sudan 42
Bilharzia, see schistosomiasis
Biogeophysical model of drought, see Drought
Bioturbationsee soil, bioturbation
Birket Qarun, see Lake Qarun, Egypt, and Fayum
Bir Kiseiba, Egypt 241, 309–310
Bir Natrun, Sudan 213
Bir Sahara, Egypt 227, 239–241, 244, 246, 324
Bir Tarfawi, Egypt 224, 227, 239–241, 246, 324
Bisciara well, Libya 238
Blue Nile, 1, 5, 11, 13, 14, 15, 17, 26, 28, 45, 54, 71, 81, 83–84, 86, 90–96, 117–118, 143, 146, 148, 150, 152–160, 163, 164, 197, 199, 200, 202, 205, 273, 284, 292–293, 297, 299–300, 311–312, 319
age of 8
alluvial history 94–96
bedrock geology 11
basin area 28
carbonates 55
damming of White Nile 117
discharge 28, 87, 109, 198
distributary channels 94, 144, 148–152, 157, 159
Early Holocene regime 94–95
fan 94
floods 5, 30, 146, 202, 311
geological erosion 11, 83
gorge 9, 11, 26, 83, 84, 158, 293
headwaters 1, 5, 7, 11, 147, 152
heavy minerals 58, 147, 158
Holocene floods 86–87
Holocene incision 154
incision 14, 83, 95, 118, 153–154, 157, 312
late Pleistocene regime 93–94, 95–96
meandering 150–151, 153–154
palaeochannels, 153see also Gezira
sediment load 28, 87, 198–199
source-bordering dunes 94, 114, 158–159
suspension load 149
volcanic ash 154–156
Bølling-Allerød interstadial 106, 273
Bor, South Sudan 109
Bos brachyceros 66, 176
Bos primigenius 310, 311
Bos taurus 310, 311
Branko, Sudan 150, 160
Burullus Lagoon, Egypt 281
Burundi 1, 19, 32, 71, 107
Butana Desert, Sudan 7, 21, 42, 174, 265, 315
Cainozoic, see Cenozoic
Calanscio serir, Libyan Desert 228
Cairo, Egypt 4, 9, 255, 257, 301
Calcium carbonate 55–56, 107, 206, 243
Calcrete 55, 107, 139
Camel
introduction to Nile basin 67
herders 68
Cameroon Mts. 15, 39
Canopus, Nile Delta, Egypt 278, 279
Carbon dioxide (CO2)
glacial atmospheric levels 332
Cattle, see also Domestication
domestication 79
herders 67, 79
ritual skull burials 67
Cenozoic 40
Ceramics, see Pottery
Chad 137, 178, 186, 216, 220, 224
Chad Basin 41, 45, 109, 176, 177–178, 180, 192, 279, 284, 323
Chifeng, Inner Mongolia, China 271
Chlorine 36 (36Cl) dating 166
Choukoutien (Zhoukoudian), China 327
Congo Air Boundary 23
Congo Basin 14, 32, 97
Continental breakup 36–37, 39, 82
Cosmogenic nuclide dating 87, 166
Cyrenaica, Libya 269
Dabban 332
Dakhla Oasis, Egypt 224, 227, 228
Dams 77–79
Darb el Arba’in, see Arba’in Desert
Darfur Province, Sudan 15, 71, 132, 135, 136, 139, 140–142, 159, 224, 238
Dating methods 33
Dead Sea, Lake Lisan 31
Dead Sea Rift 31, 330
Debba, Sudan 214
Debre Markos, Ethiopia 11
Deforestation 70–71
Deglaciation 88
Deriba Caldera 180, 187–192
Deriba Lakes 189–192, 279
Desert, see also Sahara
dunes 45
dust 45, 105, 145, 204, 297
pavement 53, 57, 204, 205
refugia 40
soils 56
Desert Nile 1, 7, 56, 196, 200–210, 239, 244, 254, 257, 259, 284–286, 292, 310, 324
alluvial history 198–199, 203
alluvium 198
anabranching channels 207
catchment area 196
dune barriers 201
eolian sand 197, 209
ephemeral lakes 201
wadi gravels 199
wadis 196, 201, 209, 297, 298
‘wild’ Nile 202
Desertification
causes 60, 71, 74–77
consequences 74–77
definition 74
human impact 74–77
natural 60
overgrazing 71–72
plant cover 77
processes 74
social factors 76
solutions 77
Diatoms 286
Diatomite 142
Dilling, South Sudan 135
Dinder River, Sudan 15, 53, 93, 150
Dmanisi, Georgia 327, 332
Domestication 7, 69, 211, 276, 308
barley 253, 256, 303, 305, 306, 308, 309, 320
cattle 66, 174, 215–6, 218, 230, 233, 256, 303, 306, 309, 310, 313, 317, 320
dogs 233
pigs 256, 306
sheep 174, 216, 218, 230, 233, 256, 303, 306, 309, 313, 317, 320
goats 174, 216, 218, 230, 233, 256, 303, 306, 309, 313, 317, 320
millet 174, 316
sorghum 124, 174, 315, 316, 317, 320
wheat 253, 256, 303, 306, 308, 320
Dongola, Sudan 207
Dongola Nile 207–209
Droughts
albedo model 74–77
Dueim, see Ed Dueim
Duk Ridge, South Sudan 109
Dunes
active 45–46, 192, 275
barriers 45, 201, 237
dating 159
deflection 192
distribution 45–46, 136
ephemeral 138
erosion 72–73, 138, 140
fixed 46, 135, 139
formation 136
Kordofan 45, 73, 136, 139–142
linear 137, 192
location 137
mobilisation 77, 136
Negev desert 137
orientation 45
polygenic 45, 139
preservation 138, 275
reactivation 77, 141, 159
soil 55, 73
stabilisation 55
Sahara 45
source-bordering 114
vegetated 192
Dustsee also Desert dust
deposition 55, 204
haboob 25, 45, 145, 204
in soils 52, 55, 139, 204
origins 275
reworking 209
storms 24, 44, 286
traps 272
Dynastic, Egypt 250, 267, 289
Early Khartoum 120–122, 154, 161, 218–219, 311–315
Early Stone Age, 3, 45, 176, 185, 211, 227, 236, 238see also Lower Palaeolithic
East African Orogeny 16, 17, 37, 39, 81, 268
East African Rift 97
Eastern Desert, Egypt 242, 260, 266
Eastern Rift, Kenya 97, 178
Ecuador, Holocene lake sediments 30
Ed Dueim, Sudan 71, 102
Eghei massif, Libya 238
Egypt 3, 9, 36, 52, 199, 200, 201, 210, 227, 257, 278, 286, 315, 329see also Nile Delta, Red Sea Hills, Sinai, Western Desert
climate 26
First Dark Age 286
El Atrun, Sudan 222
El Fasher, Sudan 224
El Khiday, Sudan 122–123, 305, 313
El Niño-Southern Oscillation (ENSO) 24–25, 30, 31, 286–287
El Obeid, Sudan 140
El Omari, Egypt 309
El-Ugal, Sudan 207, 208
Eluviation, see soil
En Nahud, Sudan 142
Ennedi Plateau, Chad 214, 217, 238, 246
Epipalaeolithic 207, 238, 252, 276, 277
Eratosthenes 5
Eritrea 257
Erkowit, Sudan
aquatic snail shells 262–264
mist oasis 62
Holocene wetland 262–265
Erosion
accelerated 60
geological 8, 11, 82, 172
processes 91–93, 273
Es Skhul, Israel 276, 328, 333
Esh Shawal, Sudan 115–116, 146
Ethiopia, 1, 5, 8, 67, 71, 85, 164–167, 186, 301, 313, 317, 320, 326, 328, 329, 333see also Afar, Middle Awash
agro-climatic zones 63
climate 19
climatic changes 88, 166–167, 170
ensete 317
erosion 8, 83, 84, 171–172, 198
glaciation 45, 87, 166–167
lake fluctuations 85–86, 93
periglacial deposits 88, 168
plant and animal domestication 317
prehistory 89
Quaternary climates 86–91, 166–167
Semien Mountains 45, 87, 93, 166–167
teff 317
Trap Series 8, 9, 82, 84
uplift 13, 41, 81, 83, 84, 198
vegetation 63, 88
volcanic activity 41, 82
Ethiopian Highlands 8, 9, 11, 13, 19, 23, 32, 41, 45, 54, 62, 81–96, 89, 166–172, 172, 174, 284, 292, 294–295, 297, 317–320, 198, 258
Ethiopian Rift Valley 15, 41, 86–89, 98, 284, 317
Extreme rainfall events 31–32, 61
Farafra Oasis, Egypt 307
Fayum 7, 238, 248–256, 302, 305–309, 317, 320
Bahr el Yussef 248, 255
Birket Qarun lake 248, 250, 255
domesticated plants and animals 248, 252, 254–256, 306–309, 317
‘Fayum A’ 253, 255, 288
‘Fayum B’ 253, 255
fish in prehistoric diet 253, 255, 306
Hawara channel 248, 250, 251, 255
Holocene lake 248, 250, 252, 254, 306, 307
Lake Moeris 248, 306, 307
Lake Qarun 250, 251, 252, 254
Late Holocene desiccation 248, 252, 256
Mesolithic 248, 249, 250, 253, 255, 306, 308
Neolithic 248, 249, 250, 253, 255, 306, 308
Nile floods 254
origin 250–251
Rayan Depression 249
salt lake 250
winter rains 254, 307
Fayum Depression, Egypt 248–250, 252
Fayum Lake 248–252, 254–256
Ferricrete, see laterite
‘Fertile Crescent’ 302, 303, 309
Fire
historic 59
Fish, in prehistoric diet 123, 175, 220, 253, 255, 312
Flinders Ranges, Australia 271–273
Floods
El Niño-Southern Oscillation (ENSO) events 30
historic 31
Foraminifera (forams)
isotopic composition 298
oxygen isotopes 298
Fossils
human 276
invertebrates 57, 116, 150, 214–215, 216, 219
pollen 34
vertebrates 34, 85, 122, 150, 172, 215, 230
Fossil vertebrate fauna 34, 122, 150
Fossil invertebrate fauna 57, 116, 150
Full glacial, see glacial maximum
Gadeb, Ethiopia 85, 326
Gastropod 117, 206, 216, 251
Gedaref, Sudan 148, 164
Gebel Musa, Sinai, Egypt 269
Gewani, Ethiopia 89–90
Gezira, Sudan 1, 26, 68, 71, 111, 143–163, 174, 205, 308, 313
abandoned meanders 153–154
alluvial fan 143, 157
alluvial gravels 149–150
aquatic snails 145–147
clays 54, 111, 145, 14
desert dust 145
Etheria elliptica (Nile oyster) 149
floods 146
Limicolaria flammata 145–148
origin 145, 156–157
stratigraphy 156
Holocene flooding 146
palaeochannels 144, 148–152, 153–156
source-bordering dunes 158
volcanic ash 154–156
Gezira Irrigation Area, Sudan 11, 31, 70, 148
Gezira Research Station, Sudan 153, 154
Gilf Kebir (Gilf el Kebir), Egypt 32, 140, 224, 227, 229–231, 237, 239, 247
Gizzu grazing 67, 319
Glacial
Aridity 199
cirque 166
erratic 166
evaporation 273
maximum 62, 198
moraine 166
pluvial 199
striations 166
temperature 273
Glaciation 45
Ethiopia 45, 166
evidence of 166
Gondar, Ethiopia 164
Gondwana 36, 39
Grassland 318
Groundwater 217, 242–244, 247, 273
Gullies, see Kerrib
Haboob 25, 45, 145
Hadley circulation 21–22, 26
Hafir 68, 265
Halfa al Jadida, Sudan 173
Hamada el Akdamin, Libya 235–238
Hamade el Fayoud, Libya 235
Hamada Ibn Battutah, Libya 235
Hariq 59
Harmattan 45, 245, 272
Hasaheisa, Sudan 144, 159
Hashaba, Sudan 114, 146, 158
Hawara Channel, Egypt 250, 255
Hawawiya Nile 207–209
Heinrich Event 274
Hercynian Orogeny 40
Herodotus 3, 19, 251, 278, 279, 289
Herto, Afar Rift, Ethiopia 328
Hoggar Mts, Sahara 26, 40, 41, 47, 176, 181, 186, 220, 319
Holocene
climates 30, 142
time scale 3–4, 323
Hominid/hominin 42, 85
Homo erectus 127, 326, 328, 332
Homo ergaster 127, 326
Homo habilis 327
Homo sapiens 130, 322, 326, 328, 329, 332, 333
Hyksos 67
Idku Lagoon, Egypt 281
Illuviation, see soil
India 139, 329
Indian Ocean 244, 301, 260, 298
Infiltration, soil 47
Inselberg 51, 52, 145
Intertropical convergence zone (ITCZ) 19, 21, 24, 31–32, 141, 201, 203, 216, 217, 218, 284, 287, 301, 302
Irrigation 69
Irharhar River, Algeria 245, 329
Isotopes
carbon 116, 251, 260
clumped 326
deuterium 105, 326
marine isotope stages 34–35
neodymium 209, 298
oxygen 103, 113, 116, 123, 127, 216, 251, 260, 325
marine stratigraphy 34–35
silicon 103
strontium 103, 209, 286, 298
Israel, 137, 325see Negev Desert
Janjari, Niger 132
Jebel Ahmed Agha, Sudan 265
Jebel Akhdar, Libya 21, 26, 137, 269
Jebel Arkenu, Libya 39, 232, 233–235, 247
Jebel Aulia, Sudan 71, 114, 158
Jebel Aulia Dam 69
Jebel Baroka 123
Jebel Catharina, Sinai, Egypt 269
Jebel Irhoud, Morocco 329, 333
Jebel Marra, Sudan 15, 26, 40, 47, 58, 60, 65, 68, 137, 140, 177, 177–194, 279, 319, 326
Jebel Marra volcano, Sudan 7, 15, 58
Caldera 58, 180, 187–192
diatomite 184
drainage diversion 180
dunes 192–195
fumaroles 177
gallery forest 63, 140
lakes 184–185, 188–192, 194
fossil oil palm leaves 58, 178, 182, 194, 326
Pleistocene climates 326
Prehistory 184–185, 194
soils 58, 182
terraces 58, 68, 185–187
Umm Mari Formation 183–185
vegetation 176, 181, 194
volume erupted 176
Jebel Meidob, Sudan, see Meidob Hills
Jebel Moya, Sudan 143, 162, 316
cattle herders 162
human burials 162
Meroitic age 162
Jebel Rahib, Sudan 217
Jebel Tageru, Sudan 217
Jebel Tomat, Sudan 114, 124, 147, 162, 316, 317
Jebel ‘Uweinat, Libya 26, 39, 42, 67, 137, 224, 229, 231–233, 239, 247
Jebelein, Sudan 115, 203
Jet stream, easterly 26, 31
Jonglei canal, South Sudan 110
Juba, South Sudan 19
Kadero, Sudan 305, 313, 314, 317
Kadruka, Sudan 233
Kagera River, Uganda 101
Kalahari Desert 136–137
Kalokitting, Sudan 181
Kassala, Sudan 175
Kawa, Sudan 207
Kebkabiya, Sudan 184
Kenya 261
droughts 63
lake fluctuations 324
Kenya Rift Valley 324
Kerma, Sudan 42, 57, 203–207
alluvial plain 204, 206
Kerma Ancien 209
Kerma Classique 209
Kerma Moyen 209
Kerma Period 207, 285
Kerrib 154
Kharga Oasis, Egypt 224, 225, 227, 228–229, 242, 244, 300
Khartoum, Sudan 1, 19, 28, 31, 117, 120, 143, 145, 149, 161, 219, 238, 301
Khashm el Girba 164, 173
Khashm el Girba Dam 94, 164, 174
Khor Abu Anga, Sudan 119–120, 219
Khor Abu Habl, Sudan 132–136, 141–142
Khor Abu Habl
alluvial fan 132–134, 141
channel 135
dunes 135, 141, 142
flow regime 132
Holocene lakess 142
origin
Khor Harasab, Red Sea Hills, Sudan 263
Kom Ombo, Egypt 200, 259
Kordofan qoz (dunes)
Kordofan Province, Sudan 45, 77, 132, 135, 136, 139, 140–142, 159
Kosti, Sudan 118, 143
Kufra Oasis, Libya 238
Kurkur Oasis, Egypt 324
Kutum, Sudan 213
La Niña 31
Laga Oda, Ethiopia 317–318
Laguna Pallcacocha, Ecuador 286
Lake
diatoms 86
Holocene fluctuations 86, 142
regression 86
shorelines 85, 139, 142
stable isotopes 196–197
transgression 86
water budget 85, 217
Lake Abiyata, Ethiopia 286
Lake Albert, Uganda 1, 15, 18, 32, 97, 100–102, 106, 113, 114, 125, 200, 202, 209, 286
Lake Assal, Djibouti 192
Lake Besaka, Ethiopia 317–318
Lake Baringo, Kenya 98
Lake Bogoria, Kenya 98
Lake Chad, Chad 139, 177, 181, 189, 192, 279
Lake Challa, Tanzania 87, 104–105, 142, 203, 207
fluctuations 104–105
Lake Edward, Uganda 15, 97, 102, 104
Lake Elmenteita, Kenya 98
Lake Gadeb, Ethiopia 85, 96, 331
Lake George, Uganda 15
Lake Kyoga, Uganda 1, 14–15
Lake Lisan, Israel 29
Lake Magadi, Kenya 18, 98
Lake Malawi, Malawi 185
Lake Megafezzan, Libya 102
Lake Moeris, Egypt 248–249, 279, 306, 307
Lake Naivasha, Kenya 98
Lake Nakuru, Kenya 98
Lake Nasser, Egypt 15
Lake Qarun, Egypt 248–250, 252, 254, 255
Lake Rudolf, see Lake Turkana
Lake Sudd, early speculation
Lake Tana, Ethiopia 1, 5, 9, 11, 32, 82, 86, 87, 102, 105, 164, 194, 202, 259
Lake Tanganyika, Tanzania 98
Lake Turkana, Kenya 98, 127–131, 297, 317, 320, 324
Lake Turkana, see also Omo Delta, Omo River, Omo Valley
Delta 129
Holocene fluctuations 130
Kibish Formation 129
overflow to White Nile 128–131
Pleistocene fluctuations 127, 128–129
Prehistoric sites 130
Lake Victoria, Uganda 1, 15, 32, 97–104, 106, 125, 199, 286
Lake Victoria
age 15, 18, 100
desiccation 102, 106, 113
Holocene fluctuations 103
Overflow 102, 106
Pleistocene fluctuations 102–103, 113
prehistoric occupation around the lake 104
origin 14–15
regressions 117
source of White Nile
tectonic movement 98
Lake Wanyanga/Ounianga, Chad 238
Lake Yoa, Chad 246
Land degradation, see desertification
Lapse rate 88
Laqiya Arba’in, Sudan 178
Last glacial maximum (LGM) 225, 259, 274, 275
aridity 86, 87, 102, 104, 106, 113, 125, 138, 168
climate 86, 125, 166–168, 326, 332
sea level 198, 274, 280, 329
temperature 93
Last interglacial 113, 125, 239, 244
Late Cenozoic
climates 135–136
cooling 85
desiccation 85
drainage reversal 97
rifting 97
vegetation history 85
Late Stone Age, 104, 174, 187, 201see also Upper Palaeolithic
Laterite, 52, 236see also ferricrete
Laurentide Ice Sheet 273
Leonardo da Vinci 5
Levallois 327, 329
Levant 276, 289, 302, 306, 309, 320, 326, 328, 330, 333
Levantine Basin 293, 298
Levantine Corridor 277
Libya 269, 329
Libyan Desert 41, 136, 137, 140, 178, 212, 213, 224, 227, 231, 236, 315
Libyan desert
climatic change 41, 140
exploration 218–219
Lineaments 15, 16, 17, 39, 81
Lithospheric plate movements, see continental breakup
Little Ice Age 63
Loess, see Dust
Lotigipi Swamps, South Sudan 129, 131
Lower Palaeolithic, 3, 45, 200, 211, 229, 251, 276, 332see also Early Stone Age
Luminescence dating 33, 149, 202
Mai Shaha River, Ethiopia 164, 168–170
Malakal, South Sudan 19, 107
Mali 216, 315
Manaqil Ridge, Sudan 143, 145
Manzala Lagoon, Egypt 281
Marine isotope stage (MIS) 34, 259, 323
Marine sediment cores 34, 323, 329
Maryut Lagoon, Egypt 281, 289
Masoudia, Sudan 149, 150
Matmata Hills, Tunisia 271, 272
Mauritania 245
Maya’a 65, 74, 114
Medani, Sudan, see Wad Medani
Mediaeval Warm Period 30
Mediterranean 9, 29, 41, 137, 198, 199, 205, 224, 260, 270, 281, 285, 291–300, 325, 326, 329–330, 333
marine sediments 29
Miocene desiccation 41
salt desert 9, 41
Megafan, see rivers
Meidob Hills, Sudan 178
Melka Kontouré, Ethiopia 89
Melut, South Sudan 118
Memphis, Egypt 4
Merimde, Egypt 288, 309
Meroe/Merowe, Sudan 42, 124, 213
Meroitic 162, 265, 316
Mesolithic 120–123, 142, 160–161, 174, 176, 187, 197, 207, 211, 216, 219, 230, 252, 261, 266, 276, 302, 306, 311–315
Messinian Salinity Crisis 9, 41, 198
Metahara, Ethiopia 89–90
Middle Awash, Ethiopia 85, 96, 127, 327, 329, 333
Middle Stone Age/Middle Palaeolithic 104, 160, 172, 227, 229, 236, 239, 240, 241, 246, 327, 329, 330, 333
Millet 68
Miocene Lake Albert 100
Misliya Cave, Israel 328, 333
Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) 327, 331
Monsoon 22
African 23, 29, 102, 152, 201, 243, 254, 259, 325
Asian 31, 139, 298
East African 23
Indian 325
West African 23
Moraine, glacialsee glacial, moraine
Morocco, see Jebel Irhoud, Morocco
Mountains of the Moon 5, 97
Mousterian 120, 229, 238, 327, 329, 330, 333
Mozambique Belt 36
Mt. Badda, Ethiopia, glaciation 87–88
Mt. Bwahit, Ethiopia 166–167, 171
Mt. Elgon, Kenya and Uganda 178
Mt. Kenya, Kenya, glaciation 87
Mt. Kilimanjaro, Tanzania 87, 104, 106
Holocene precipitation 106
ice core 106
Mt. Kivu, Uganda, glaciation 45
Mt. Mesarerya, Ethiopia 94, 166–167
Mt. Ruwenzori, Uganda 45, 97
Mt. Sinai, Egypt 267, 269
Murzuq Basin, Libya 243, 324
Nabta Playa, Egypt 310
Nahud, see En Nahud
Naima, Sudan 149–150
Namib Desert 136–137, 271
Natufian 277
Natural desertification 60
Nefud Desert, Arabia 330
Negev Desert, Israel 137, 271, 274–275, 276, 325–326, 327, 330
Neolithic, 142, 161, 174, 211, 216, 306, 311–316see also Fayum, Shaheinab
Cemetery 207, 233
domesticated cattle 66, 176, 197, 207, 215–6, 225, 227, 229, 230, 236, 238, 242, 247, 252, 254, 261, 266, 276, 302, 311, 315
domesticated cereals 174, 197, 315
human burials 313, 314
lower White Nile 122
Nile Valley 3, 197, 207–208, 302
pottery 207, 217, 218, 219, 227, 229, 302, 313
rock art 40, 67, 227, 233
Sahara 39, 140, 207
New Kingdom, Egypt 207
Niger, 181, 186
Niger River 315
Nigeria 181, 272
Nile, see also Blue Nile, Nile Cone, Nile Delta, White Nile
aggradation 4, 54, 57, 251, 259
alluvium 54, 57–59, 205–206, 207, 209
angular pattern 81
canyon, Egypt 9, 41, 198, 293
cataracts 15, 198, 204, 314
dams
deep-sea fan
discharge 28, 81, 198
Eonile
flood cycles 30, 31, 281, 294
flood plain 54, 209
floods 3, 19, 29, 30, 31, 102, 121, 173, 200, 281
flow regime 102
geological history 8, 33–42
headwaters, see Blue Nile; White Nile; Tekezze-Atbara
hydro-climatic model 199
overflow 246
response to vegetation changes in headwaters 284, 297
sapropel record, Mediterranean
sediment load 28, 81, 172
sediment mineralogy 284
sediment sources 284
soils 33
terraces 200
‘wild Nile’ 200
Nile, Alfreda Nile 207–209
Nile, Dongola Nile 207–209
Nile, Hawawiya Nile 207–209
Nile, Seleim Nile 207–209
Nile Basin 3, 4
area 3
cataracts 15, 198, 204, 314
climate 5, 19, 21, 29, 59
complex response to climatic change 292
dams 69
denudation 293
forestry 70
geological evolution 35–42
geology 11, 35–42
geomorphology 11, 29
Holocene climate 67, 204, 210, 285
hydrology 20, 28, 102
land use 66–80
palaeochannels 30, 204, 207
rainfall 20, 60
soils 47–58
tectonic history 16, 33–42
vegetation 59–66, 284
vegetation zones 62, 63
volcanic influence, see Ethiopian Highlands; Jebel Marra
Nile Cone 7, 16
age 8, 16, 291
desert dust 297
link to Ethiopia 8–9, 17, 84, 95, 292
marine sediment cores 34, 293, 294
microfossils 293
Nile flood record 291, 293, 294
origin 291–293
sapropels 293, 294–300
sediment sources 84, 86, 95, 294, 297
turbidity currents 296
volume 8, 16, 17, 83–84, 292
Nile Delta 4, 7, 21, 83–84, 198, 275, 278–290, 294, 296, 297, 298, 309, 330
area 278
channel incision 280
desiccation 286
distributary channels 278, 280, 296
environmental problems 279, 287, 289
geomorphology 280, 287
historic maps 281–283
lagoons 280, 281
late Pleistocene alluvial fan 280
origin 280
prehistoric occupation 254, 287, 289
progradation 280
sand barrier ridges 280
sedimentation 281, 284, 286, 287
structure 279–280
subsidence 287–288
winter rain 301
Nile Valley 3, 31, 66, 67, 196–210, 213, 241, 254, 265, 302, 305, 306, 309, 310, 315, 317, 320, 330
Nilometer 30, 285
Nuba Mts., Sudan 132–133, 135
Nubia 7, 42, 52–53, 57, 79, 199, 200, 210, 305, 306
Nubian Desert 21
Nubian Sandstone 40, 42, 52, 53, 57, 63, 119, 156, 204
Nyala, Sudan 182
Nyama, Sudan 181
Nyertete, Sudan 187
Obliquity cycle 43, 294
Ogaden, Ethiopia 40
Old Dongola, Sudan 214, 215
Old Kingdom, Egypt 29
Oldowan 89, 184, 185, 326, 327, 332
Olduvai Gorge, Tanzania 185, 326
Oligocene Regional Truncation Surface 82, 268, 269
Olorgesailie, Kenya 185
Oman 325
Omdurman, Sudan 120, 161, 219, 311
Omo Delta, Ethiopia 67, 127–129
Hominin fossils 127
Kibish Formation 156
vertebrate fossil fauna 127
Omo River, Ethiopia 129, 131, 156
Omo Valley 127, 276, 329, 333
Optically stimulated luminescence (OSL), 53, 202, 203, 225
Orbital eccentricity 43
Ostracods, non-marine 214, 264
Out of Africa
archaeological evidence 326–328, 330
environmental context 324–326, 329, 330
fossil evidence 328–329
genetic evidence 327, 331–332
migrations 7, 245, 276, 322
possible routes 325, 328, 329–332
Oxygen isotopes, see isotopes, oxygen
Oyo, Sudan 30, 222
Palaeolithic
Lower 227
Middle 227, 276
Terminal 302
Upper 201, 227, 238, 276, 302, 332
Palaeolake Obweruka, Uganda 15, 100
Palaeomagnetic dating 33
Paleochannel, see rivers
Paleoclimatic record, evidence used to reconstruct 32–34
Paleoenvironmental indicators 32–34
Paleosol, see soil
Palermo Stone 285
Pan-African Orogeny 36
Pastoralists, nomadic 66, 68, 220, 233, 319
Pelusium, Nile Delta, Egypt 278, 279
Periglacial
landforms 88, 168
processes 93, 168
solifluction 88, 168
Phytoliths 155
Pibor River, South Sudan 128–129, 297
Pilkington Bay, Lake Victoria, Uganda 103
Plant domestication, see Domestication
Plant migration 59, 60
Pleistocene, time scale 42
Pliocene Lake Bodo 331
Pliocene Lake Gadeb 331
Pluvial
glacial 199
Kordofan 142
lakes, Sahara 242
Port Sudan, Sudan 62
Pollen, fossil 30, 34, 60, 89, 222, 223
Potassium-argon dating 33
Pottery 314
Dotted Wavy Line 313
Mesolithic 313
Neolithic 313
Wavy Line 315
Precambrian 35, 81
Precessional cycle 43, 139, 243, 294
Predynastic Egypt 267
Prehistoric
adapations 3
environments 33–34, 301
migrations 7
rock art 67
Qaab Basin, Sudan 203
Qafzeh, Israel 276, 328, 333
Qoz, 45, 139–140, 159see also dunes
Qoz Abu Dulu, Sudan 45, 203, 219
Qoz Dango, Sudan 73, 139, 192
Qoz Kabaro, Sudan 154
Qoz Salsigo, Sudan 139
Quaternary
climatic variability 42, 44
duration 42
environments, sources of data used to reconstruct 34–35
glacial-interglacial cycles 42, 44, 85
marine sediment cores 43
sea-level fluctuations 44
time scale 42
Quseir, Egypt 261
Rabak, Sudan 17, 111, 120
‘Radar channels’ 240
Radiocarbon (14C) dating 33, 201, 223, 308
Rahad, Sudan 135
Rahad River, Sudan 15, 53, 93, 152
Raindrop impact 93
Rainfall variability 62
Rajasthan Desert, 139(see also Thar Desert), India
Ras Dashan Mtn., Ethiopia 62, 164
Rayan Depression, Egypt 250
Rebiana Sand Sea, Libya 238
Red Sea 15, 26, 41, 81, 243, 257–258, 259, 260, 261, 265, 267, 268, 269, 314, 325, 331, 333
Red Sea Hills, 7, 15, 26, 32, 39, 62, 84, 178, 181, 201, 225, 257–266, 270, 293, 297, 300, 307, 320see also Erkowit
connection to Nile 265
coral reefs 259
erosion 9, 84
Holocene climates 262–266
Pleistocene climates 201, 260, 266
prehistoric sites 261
rifting 82, 258, 269
swamps 201–205
tufas 260–261, 266
uplift 258, 269
wadis 9, 259, 265
Refugia 40, 60, 319
Regional Truncation Surface, see Oligocene Regional Truncation Surface
Renk, South Sudan 111, 147
Ring Complex 39, 231, 233
Rhizocretions 55
Rivers
base level 198
bed load/traction load 93, 96, 157, 158
discharge 198
dissolved load 90–91
incision 54, 153–154
meandering 150, 151, 153–154
megafan 135, 143
paleochannel 45
sea level fluctuations 198
sediment load 90–91, 172, 198, 298
stream power 153–154, 198, 273
suspension load 93, 149, 157, 172
traction load/bed load 93, 96, 172
velocity 198
Rosetta channel, Nile delta, Egypt 297, 298
Roseires Dam, Sudan 70
Ruanda (Rwanda) 1, 19
Sabaloka Gorge, Sudan 111, 117, 314
Sahabi rivers 41, 137
Sahara Desert 26, 29, 41, 44–45, 137–139, 140, 176, 211, 219, 220, 225, 242, 245, 247, 254, 272, 275, 301, 309–311, 314–315, 317, 319, 323–324, 327, 329, 333
causes of aridity 26
Cenozoic climatic fluctuations 134–135, 231
Cenozoic desiccation 40, 41
climate 21
climatic changes 120, 176, 220
desiccation 315, 317
dunes 45–46, 102, 136, 137, 139
dust 29, 45, 105, 275, 297
former drainage network 29, 40, 41
fossil fauna 238
geology 233
Holocene climate 230, 242, 246, 275, 314, 315
lakes 139, 239, 243
last interglacial lakes 227
link to Nile Valley 213, 317
mountains 30
palaeochannels 30, 44, 240
paleoclimates 41, 120, 220, 230
plant migrations 40, 223
Pleistocene lakes 113, 227
pollen analysis 222, 223
prehistoric human occupation 39, 120, 230, 232, 235, 236, 238–239, 242, 254, 314–315, 329
refugia 40, 319
rivers 235, 323
rock art 231, 232, 233, 238
topography 30
uplands 30, 40, 176, 319
vegetation history 41, 223, 231
volcanoes 41
Saint Catherine’s Peak, Sinai, Egypt 267
Saïs, Egypt 309
Salinisation 73–74
Sand dunes, see dunes
Sandersons Gulf, Kenya 129, 131
Sapropel 129, 173, 285, 294–300, 325, 330
chronology 296
definition 295
links to Nile floods 296, 330
post-depositional oxidation 296
Schistosomiasis 79
Sea-floor spreading 4
Sea-level
and ice volume 198
at glacial maximum 198
fluctuations 274
last interglacial 329
Seleim Basin, Sudan 207
Seleim Nile 207–209
Selima Oasis, Sudan 30, 217, 223, 224–225
Selima Sand Sea 212, 224
Semien Highlands 11, 45, 62, 87–88, 93–94, 164, 166–171, 199
Semien Mts, Ethiopia
climate change 170–171
glaciation 165–166
periglacial deposits 165–171
Semliki River, Uganda 97
Sennar, Sudan 143, 148, 153
Sennar Dam, Sudan 69
Setit River, Sudan 164, 173
Shabona, Sudan 122
Shaheinab, Sudan 123, 161, 311–314
Shaqadud, Sudan 315
Shendi, Sudan 221
Sinai
desert dust 267, 271
dunes 267, 269, 274
Holocene climates 270, 273–274
Holocene soils 269
migration route 267, 277
mines 267
mountains 267
periglacial deposits 269–270
Pleistocene climates 270, 273, 326
prehistoric sites 267, 276
reworked loess 271
tufas 270
valley fills 267, 270–271
wetlands 267, 270, 273, 276
Sinai Desert, Egypt 7, 45, 260, 267–277, 289, 328, 330, 333
Singa, Sudan 152, 160
fossil skulls 160
stratigraphy 160
Siwa Oasis, Egypt 254
Sobat River, South Sudan 107, 118, 128–129, 131, 297
Sodmein Cave, Red Sea Hills, Sudan 258, 261
Soil
alluvial 54
bioturbation 49, 305
buried soil 56
carbonate 55–57, 139, 204, 206
characteristics 47, 51, 117
classification 48
climate 47
conservation 58, 68
crust 57
definition 47
desert 55
development 225
eluviation 52
erosion 72
factors 47
fauna 49
formation 47
fossil 57, 204, 225
gypsum 57, 147
hardpan 57, 204, 205
horizon 47, 49
infiltration 47
moisture 47, 65–66
paleosol 57
permeability 47
polygenic 57
profile 47–51
salinity 57, 73–74
sedentary 49
termite activity 49, 204, 205, 305
types 47
vertisol (cracking clay) 53–55, 57
volcanic 53, 54, 58
Soil creep 51, 91, 93
Solifluction, periglacialsee periglacial solifluction
Solo, Java 327
Somalia, 40, 313
Soreq Cave, Israel 326
Sorghum 68
South Sudan 1, 18, 19, 39, 42, 107, 178, 314
buried rift valley 39
Southern Oscillation, 25see also El Niño-Southern Oscillation
Southern Oscillation Index (SOI) 24, 31
Speleothems
Arabian Peninsula 325
Eastern Desert, Egypt 242
isotopes 325
Negev desert 325
Oman 325
Western Desert, Egypt 242
Yemen 325
Sponge spicules 154
Sponge spicule pottery 124
Stadialsee Younger Dryas
Stream power, see river
Striation, see glacial striation
Suakin, Sudan 181
Sudan, see also Blue Nile, Darfur, Gezira, Jebel Marra, Kordofan, Sudd, White Nile
3, 65, 67, 71, 181, 199, 210, 213 220, 222, 227, 236, 257, 293, 311–317, 320, 326
Sudd Swamps, South Sudan 107–110, 113, 124–125
Sudd swamps
alluvial fan 109
ancient lake 109
area 109
desiccation 113
evaporation 107, 124
Jonglei Canal 110
Origin 109
role as geochemical filter 107, 110, 125
role as hydrological buffer 109–110
Surface exposure dating, see cosmogenic nuclide dating
Tabanidae fly 67
Tagabo Hills, Sudan 178
Tagra, Sudan 121, 311
Tanzania 261, 326
Tassili (rock art) 67, 220, 319
Tekezze River, Ethiopia 1, 8, 11, 14, 17, 28, 81, 83–84, 164, 171–172, 292–293, 297
Tendelti, Sudan 131
Ténéré Desert, Niger 39, 66, 120
Termites and soil formation, see soils, termites
Thar Desert, 329(see also Rajasthan Desert), India
Thermoluminescence (TL) dating 329
Tibesti 26, 40, 41, 176, 181, 220, 235, 246, 319
Tibetan plateau 26
Tigray Province, Ethiopia 62
Tilemsi Valley, Mali 315
Tisisat Falls, Blue Nile, Ethiopia 9, 86
Toba volcano, Sumatra, impact on climate 332
Tree Shelter site, Red Sea Hills, Egypt 261
Trade Winds 21
stronger during glacial times 275
Trap Series, Ethiopia 8, 82, 84, 85
Travertine, see speleothems
Tree line 88
Trypanosomiasis (sleeping sickness) 67, 317
Tsetse fly (Glossina) 67, 233, 317
Tufa, 233, 242see also speleothems
Tunisia 275
Turkana Basin 127–131, 326
Turkwel River, Kenya 129
Tushka Lakes, Egypt 241–242, 246, 324
‘Ubeidiya, Israel 276, 327, 332
Uganda 1, 5, 14–15, 18, 19, 32, 71, 97, 102, 107, 178, 202, 285, 297, 301
Umm Mari, Sudan 181–183, 185, 194–195
Umm Ruwaba, Sudan 135
Umm Ruwaba Formation 132, 135
Upper Palaeolithic, see Palaeolithic, Upper
Uranium-series dating 33, 324, 325
Vegetation history 60, 88
Vegetation cover 59–66
survival strategies 62
zonation by altitude 88
Vertebrate fossils, see fossils
Wad Mansurab, Sudan 123
Wad Medani, Sudan 148, 153, 154–155
Wad el Melik, Sudan 7, 28, 213, 214, 221, 225
Wad es Said, Sudan 154
Wadi
alluvial sand and gravel 57
vegetation 63
Wadi Arish, Sinai, Egypt 270
Wadi Azum, Sudan 180
Wadi Bakht, Egypt 229–231, 237
Wadi el Arab, Sudan 205
Wadi el Ku, Sudan 192
Wadi Feiran, Sinai, Egypt 270
Wadi Howar, Sudan 7, 28, 139, 140, 141, 177, 212, 213–217, 225
Wadi Ibra, Sudan 192–193
Wadi Kharit, Egypt 259
Wadi Kid, Sinai, Egypt 270
Wadi Kubbaniya, Egypt 309
Wadi Kurkur, Egypt 245
Wadi Madsus, Sinai, Egypt 270
Wadi Muqadam, Sudan 7, 28, 213, 219–221, 225
Wadi Natash, Egypt 178
Wadi Shait, Egypt 259
Wadi Sannur, Egypt 242
Wadi Watier, Sinai, Egypt 270
Wadi Zirmei, Chad 238
Wanyanga (Ounianga), Chad 120, 238, 246
Water table, see groundwater
Webi Shabeli River, Ethiopia 85, 331
Weathering
deep weathering 41, 145
front 41, 49, 52, 145
profile 49–51, 54
salt 4
West Nubian Palaeolake 217–219
Western Desert, Egypt 7, 9, 15, 211–226, 227–235, 239–242, 246, 293, 300, 301, 315, 320, 324
Western Rift, Uganda 14–15, 18
Wetland 123, 317
White Nile 1, 5, 8, 28, 44, 54–55, 65, 68, 71, 73, 77, 94, 106, 107–126, 128, 131, 132, 143, 150, 181, 199, 200, 202, 203, 219, 221, 259, 265, 273, 284–286, 297–298, 299–300, 313, 317, 319
age 8
attributes 107
discharge 28, 94
dunes 114
flood gradient 118
flood periodicity 29
flood plain 317
floods 29, 30, 105, 106, 109, 113, 114, 117–118, 202
fossil shell beds 107, 115–117
headwaters 1, 5, 7, 19, 106, 107–108
incision 118, 317
islands 118–119
lakes 55, 111–114, 125, 146, 150
late Pleistocene desiccation 113
low season flow 5, 28, 109, 125, 199
prehistoric sites 119–124
valley 54, 101, 107
wetlands 317
Wonji, Ethiopia 89–90
Yemen 325
Y chromosome, genetic evidence 331
Younger Dryas (YD) stadial 29, 106, 117, 138, 273, 274, 275
Zakiab, Sudan 312
Zalingei, Sudan 187
Zumma, Libya 238

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  • Index
  • Martin Williams, University of Adelaide
  • Book: The Nile Basin
  • Online publication: 14 December 2018
  • Chapter DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/9781316831885.026
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  • Index
  • Martin Williams, University of Adelaide
  • Book: The Nile Basin
  • Online publication: 14 December 2018
  • Chapter DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/9781316831885.026
Available formats
×

Save book to Google Drive

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  • Index
  • Martin Williams, University of Adelaide
  • Book: The Nile Basin
  • Online publication: 14 December 2018
  • Chapter DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/9781316831885.026
Available formats
×