Published online by Cambridge University Press: 22 September 2009
We are making such a large turn that it is beyond anyone's dreams. No other people has experienced what has happened to us.
Mikhail Gorbachev, April 15, 1991I want to ask you for forgiveness because many of the hopes have not come true, because what we thought would be easy turned out to be painfully difficult. I ask you to forgive me for not fulfilling some hopes of those people who believed that we would be able to jump from the grey, stagnating totalitarian past into a bright, rich, and civilized future in one go. I myself believed in this. But it could not be done all at once.
Boris Yeltsin on retiring as president, December 31, 1999Political transformation has long been a fact of life – and sometimes death. The First World War led to the collapse of the tsarist empire and of its neighbors, the Prussian, Austro-Hungarian, and Ottoman empires. This was followed by the creation of the Soviet Union as a Communist party-state and of fascist and Nazi regimes in Central and Eastern Europe. After the Second World War, democratic regimes were established in Western Europe, while Moscow installed Communist regimes behind an Iron Curtain that divided the continent.
In the past century, Russia has twice gone through a treble transformation of the state, the polity, and the economy. The first upheaval followed the 1917 Revolution that ended the tsarist empire.
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