The essence of Arend Lijphart's (1997) Presidential Address to the American Political Science Association was that who votes matters – for the types of candidates that get elected to office, the policies they enact (see Hill and Leighley 1992), and as an indicator of the health of our democratic society. Lijphart began his address by stating: “Political equality and political participation are both basic democratic ideals” (1997, p. 1). The results offered in Chapters 3 and 4 reveal that relaxed registration laws will not take us as far as reformers might like toward increased participation, the second of these ideals. Motivation, not costs, represent the most significant barrier to higher turnout in the United States. But what have registration laws done to address political equality? Even though the increases in turnout resulting from EDR and motor voter failed to reach the heights imagined by some, previous scholarship has not come to a firm conclusion regarding whether the turnout rates of some types of individuals are more likely to grow than others and, if there is variation, which types of individuals are expected to gain the most ground.

The answer has important implications. If the effects are concentrated among those who tend to be left out of politics, then the conclusion that EDR and motor voter have a limited effect might require revision.