Skip to main content Accessibility help
×
Hostname: page-component-77f85d65b8-t6st2 Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2026-04-16T13:14:12.558Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

19 - Clinical aspects of brain injury in the preterm infant

from Section 4 - Clinical aspects

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  01 March 2011

By
Michael Weindling
Edited by
Hugo Lagercrantz ,
M. A. Hanson ,
Laura R. Ment  and
Donald M. Peebles
Hugo Lagercrantz
Affiliation:
Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm
M. A. Hanson
Affiliation:
Southampton General Hospital
Laura R. Ment
Affiliation:
Yale University, Connecticut
Donald M. Peebles
Affiliation:
University College London
Get access

Summary

Introduction

After about 32 weeks' gestation, the neurodevelopmental outcome of premature infants appears to be independent of gestation. However, before 32 weeks there is an almost linear relationship between IQ measured later in life and the gestation at which the baby was born. This was shown by a study of the neurodevelopmental outcome of preterm infants by Wolke and colleagues (2001). The authors assessed IQ at 4 years and 8 months. They considered the relationship between medical and social risk factors using data from the Bavarian Longitudinal Study, which had investigated the cognitive and behavioral development of children considered to be vulnerable because of neonatal adversity. Their conclusion was that cognitive and school outcome for infants born before 32 weeks' gestation was better predicted by neonatal risk (by which they meant prematurity and low birthweight) than social factors. The reverse was true for more mature infants. These data fit well with more recent information from very immature infants born before 26 weeks. A UK cohort of very premature babies born in 2000 were included in the Epicure study (see below), which looked at their outcome when they were 6 years old (Marlow et al.,2005). The data from Bavaria and the UK have been combined in Fig. 19.1.

Thus, if birth occurs before about 32 weeks, the more premature an individual is, the greater the degree of disability.

Information

Type
Chapter
Information
The Newborn Brain
Neuroscience and Clinical Applications
 , pp. 301 - 328
Publisher: Cambridge University Press
Print publication year: 2010

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

Book purchase

Temporarily unavailable

References

Abernethy, L. J., Klafkowski, G., Foulder-Hughes, L., et al. (2003). Magnetic resonance imaging and T2 relaxometry of cerebral white matter and hippocampus in children born preterm. Pediatric Research, 54, 868–74.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Abernethy, L. J., Cooke, R. W., & Foulder-Hughes, L. (2004). Caudate and hippocampal volumes, intelligence, and motor impairment in 7-year-old children who were born preterm. Pediatric Research, 55, 884–93.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Als, H. & Gibes, R. (1986). Newborn Individualized Developmental Care and Assessment Program (NIDCAP):Training Guide. Boston, MA: Children's Hospital.Google Scholar
Als, H., Lawhon, G., Duffy, F. H., et al. (1994). Individualized developmental care for the very low-birth-weight preterm infant. JAMA: The Journal of American Medical Association, 272, 853–8.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Als, H., Duffy, F. H., McNulty, G. B., et al. (1995). Developmental care for the very low-birth-weight preterm infant. JAMA: The Journal of American Medical Association, 273, 1577–8.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Amiel-Tison, C. (1973). Neurologic disorders in neonates associated with abnormalities of pregnancy and birth. Current Problems in Pediatrics, 3, 3–37.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
,Anonymous. (1998). Randomised trial of parental support for families with very preterm children. Avon Premature Infant Project. Archives of Disease in Childhood Fetal and Neonatal Edition, 79, F4–11.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Auso, E., Lavado-Autric, R., Cuevas, E., et al. (2004). A moderate and transient deficiency of maternal thyroid function at the beginning of fetal neocorticogenesis alters neuronal migration. Endocrinology, 145, 4037–47.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Back, S. A. & Volpe, J. J. (1997). Cellular and molecular pathogenesis of periventricular white matter injury. MRDD Research Reviews, 3, 96–107.Google Scholar
Back, S. A., Gan, X., Li, Y., et al. (1998). Maturation-dependent vulnerability of oligodendrocytes to oxidative stress-induced death caused by glutathione depletion. Journal of Neuroscience, 18, 6241–53.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bandstra, E. S., Montalvo, B. M., Goldberg, R. N., et al. (1988). Prophylactic indomethacin for prevention of intraventricular hemorrhage in premature infants. Pediatrics, 82, 533–42.Google ScholarPubMed
Banker, B. & Larroche, J. (1962). Periventricular leukomalacia of infancy: a form of neonatal anoxic encephalopathy. Archives of Neurology, 7, 386–410.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Barks, J. D., Post, M., & Tuor, U. I. (1991). Dexamethasone prevents hypoxic–ischaemic brain damage in the neonatal rat. Pediatric Research, 29, 558–63.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Barrington, K. J. (2001). The adverse neuro-developmental effects of postnatal steroids in the preterm infant: a systematic review of RCTs. BMC Pediatrics, 1, 1.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Baud, O., Ville, Y., Zupan, V., et al. (1998). Are neonatal brain lesions due to intrauterine infection related to mode of delivery?British Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology, 105, 121–4.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Benirschke, K. (1993). Intrauterine death of a twin: mechanisms, implications for surviving twin, and placental pathology. Seminars in Diagnostic Pathology, 10, 222–31.Google ScholarPubMed
Benson, J. W. T., Drayton, M. R., Hayward, C., et al. (1986). Multicentre trial of ethamsylate for prevention of periventricular haemorrhage in very low birth weight infants. Lancet, ii, 1297–300.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bernal, J. (2007). Thyroid hormone receptors in brain development and function. Nature Clinical Practice Endocrinology and Metabolism, 3, 249–59.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Birch, E. E., Birch, D. G., Hoffman, D., et al. (1993). Breast feeding and optimal visual development. Journal of Pediatric Ophthalmology and Strabismus, 30, 33–8.Google ScholarPubMed
Biswas, S., Buffery, J., Enoch, H., et al. (2002). Longitudinal assessment of thyroid hormone concentrations in preterm infants younger than 30 weeks' gestation during the first 2 weeks of life and their relationship to outcome. Pediatrics, 109, 222–7.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bourgeois, J. P. (1997). Synaptogenesis, heterochrony and epigenesis in the mammalian neocortex. Acta Paediatrica Supplement, 422, 27–33.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Braner, D., Kattwinkel, J., & Denson, S., et al., eds. (2000). In Textbook of Neonatal Resuscitations, 4th edn. Elk Grove Village, IL: American Academy of Pediatrics, pp. 7–19.Google Scholar
Braughler, J. M. (1985). Lipid peroxidation-induced inhibition of gamma aminobutyric acid uptake in rat brain synaptosomes: protection by glucocorticoids. Journal of Neurochemistry, 44, 1282–8.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Brooks-Gunn, J., Gross, R. T., Kraemer, H. C., et al. (1992). Enhancing the cognitive outcomes of low birth weight, premature infants: for whom is the intervention most effective?Pediatrics, 89, 1209–15.Google ScholarPubMed
Brooks-Gunn, J., Klebanov, P. K., Liaw, F., et al. (1993). Enhancing the development of low-birthweight, premature infants: changes in cognition and behavior over the first three years. Child Development, 64, 736–53.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Brooks-Gunn, J., McCarton, C. M., Casey, P. H., et al. (1994). Early intervention in low-birth-weight premature infants. Results through age 5 years from the Infant Health and Development Program. JAMA: The Journal of American Medical Association, 272, 1257–62.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cai, D., Su, Q., Chen, Y., et al. (2000). Effect of thyroid hormone deficiency on developmental expression of goalpha gene in the brain of neonatal rats by competitive RT-PCR and in situ hybridization histochemistry. Brain Research, 864, 195–204.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Calvert, S. A., Hoskins, E. M., Fong, F. W., et al. (1986). Periventricular leukomalacia: ultrasonic diagnosis and neurological outcome. Acta Paediatrica Scandinavica, 75, 489–96.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Calvo, R., Obregon, M. J., Ruiz de Ona, C., et al. (1990). Congenital hypothyroidism, as studied in rats. Crucial role of maternal thyroxine but not of 3,5,3′-triiodothyronine in the protection of the fetal brain. Journal of Clinical Investigation, 86, 889–99.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Campbell, F. A. & Ramey, C. T. (1994). Effects of early intervention on intellectual and academic achievement: a follow-up study of children from low-income families. Child Development, 65, 684–98.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Chiswick, M. L., Johnson, M., Woodhall, C., et al. (1983). Protective effect of vitamin E (DL-alpha-tocopherol) against intraventricular haemorrhage in premature babies. British Medical Journal, 287, 81–4.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Chowdhry, P., Scanlon, J. W., Auerbach, R., et al. (1984). Results of controlled double-blind study of thyroid replacement in very low-birth-weight premature infants with hypothyroxinemia. Pediatrics, 73, 301–5.Google ScholarPubMed
Cifuentes, R. F., Olley, P. M., Balfe, J. W., et al. (1979). Indomethacin and renal function in premature infants with persistent patent ductus arteriosus. Journal of Pediatrics, 95, 583–7.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Collins, P. (1995). Embryology and development. In Gray's Anatomy, 38th edn., eds. P. L. Williams, L. H. Bannister, M. M. Berry, et al. Edinburgh: Churchill Livingstone, pp. 252, 315, 316.Google Scholar
Cooke, R. W. I. (1987). Determinants of major handicap in post-haemorrhagic hydrocephalus. Archives of Disease in Childhood, 62, 504–6.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cooke, R. W. I. (2004). Health, lifestyle, and quality of life for young adults born very preterm. Archives of Disease in Childhood, 89, 201–6.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cooke, R. W. (2006). Are there critical periods for brain growth in children born preterm?Archives of Disease in Childhood Fetal and Neonatal Edition, 91, F17–20.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Coombs, R. C., Morgan, M. E. I., Durbin, G. M., et al. (1990). Gut blood flow velocities in the newborn: effects of patent ductus arteriosus and parenteral indomethacin. Archives of Disease in Childhood, 65, 1067–71.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Costeloe, K., Hennessy, E. M., Gibson, A. T., et al. (2000). The EPICure Study: outcomes to discharge from hospital for babies born at the threshold of viability. Pediatrics, 106, 659–71.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Crowley, P., Chalmers, I., & Keirse, M. J. N. C. (1990). The effects of corticosteroid administration before preterm delivery: an overview of the evidence from controlled trials. British Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology, 97, 11–25.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Crowther, C. A., Doyle, L. W., Haslam, R. R., et al. (2007). Outcomes at 2 years of age after repeat doses of antenatal corticosteroids. New England Journal of Medicine, 357, 1179–89.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dammann, O. & Leviton, A. (1997). Maternal intrauterine infection, cytokines, and brain damage in the preterm newborn. Pediatric Research, 42, 1–8.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Vries, L. & Levene, M. I. (1995). Cerebral ischaemic lesions. In Fetal and Neonatal Neurology and Neurosurgery, eds. Levene, M. I, Lilford, R. J, Bennet, M. J, & Punt, J. Edinburgh: Churchill Livingstone.Google Scholar
Delivoria-Papadopoulos, M. & McGowan, J. E. (1998). Oxygen transport and delivery. In Fetal and Neonatal Physiology, eds. Polin, R. A. & Fox, W. W.. Philadelphia: W. B. Saunders.Google Scholar
Ouden, A. L., Kok, J. H., Verkerk, P. H., et al. (1996). The relation between neonatal thyroxine levels and neurodevelopmental outcome at age 5 and 9 years in a national cohort of very preterm and/or very low birth weight infants. Pediatric Research, 39, 142–5.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dobbing, J. & Sands, J. (1970). Timing of neuroblast multiplication in developing human brain. Nature, 226, 639–40.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dommergues, M. A., Parkai, J., Renauld, J. C., et al. (2000). Proinflammatory cytokines and interleukin-9 exacerbate excitoxic lesions of the newborn murine neopallium. Annals of Neurology, 47, 54–63.3.0.CO;2-Y>CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dunlop, S. A., Archer, M. A., Quinlivan, J. A., et al. (1997). Repeated prenatal corticosteroids delay myelination in the ovine central nervous system. Journal of Maternal Fetal Medicine, 6, 309–13.Google ScholarPubMed
Eayrs, J. T. (1953). Thyroid hypofunction and the development of the central nervous system. Nature, 172, 403–4.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Eayrs, J. T. & Horn, G. (1955). The development of cerebral cortex in hypothyroid and starved rats. Anatomical Record, 121, 53–61.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Edwards, A. D., Wyatt, J. S., Richardson, C., et al. (1990). Effects of indomethacin on cerebral haemodynamics in very preterm infants. Lancet, 335, 1491–5.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Farquharson, J., Jamieson, E. C., Abbasi, K. A., et al. (1995). Effect of diet on the fatty acid composition of the major phospholipids of infant cerebral cortex. Archives of Disease in Childhood, 72, 198–203.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fisher, D. A. & Klein, A. H. (1981). Thyroid development and disorders of thyroid function in the newborn. New England Journal of Medicine, 304, 702–12.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fowlie, P. W. (1996). Prophylactic indomethacin: systematic review and meta-analysis. Archives of Disease in Childhood, 74, F81–7.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fletcher, J. M., Landry, S. H., Bohan, T. O., et al. (1997). Effects of intraventricular hemorrhage and hydrocephalus on the long-term neurobehavioural development of very-low-birthweight infants. Developmental Medicine and Child Neurology, 39, 596–606.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Garland, J. S. (1995). Developmental care for very low-birth-weight preterm infants. Journal of the American Medical Association, 273, 1575.Google Scholar
Georgeson, G. D., Szony, B. J., Streitman, K., et al. (2002). Antioxidant enzyme activities are decreased in preterm infants and in neonates born via caesarean section. European Journal of Obstetrics, Gynecology and Reproductive Biology, 103, 136–9.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Geva, E., Lerner-Geva, L., Stavorovsky, Z., et al. (1998). Multifetal pregnancy reduction a possible risk factor for periventricular leukomalacia in premature newborns. Fertility and Sterility, 69, 845–50.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ginsberg, M. D., Hedley-Whyte, E. T., & Richardson, E. P. (1976). Hypoxic–ischemic leukoencephalopathy in man. Archives of Neurology, 33, 5–14.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Glazebrook, C., Marlow, N., Israel, C., et al. (2007). Randomised trial of a parenting intervention during neonatal intensive care. Archives of Disease in Childhood Fetal and Neonatal Edition, 92, F438–43.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Goldenberg, R. L., Hauth, J. C., & Andrews, W. W. (2000). Intrauterine infection and preterm delivery. New England Journal of Medicine, 342, 1500–7.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Goodman, M., Rothberg, A. D., Houston-McMillan, J. E., et al. (1985). Effect of early neurodevelopmental therapy in normal and at-risk survivors of neonatal intensive care. Lancet, ii, 1327–30.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Grafe, M. R. (1993). Antenatal cerebral necrosis in monochorionic twins. Pediatric Pathology, 13, 15–19.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Greisen, G., Munck, H., & Lou, H. (1987). Severe hypocarbia in preterm infants and neurodevelopmental deficit. Acta Paediatrica Scandinavica, 76, 401–4.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Grether, J. K., Nelson, K. B., & Cummins, S. K. (1993). Twinning and cerebral palsy: experience in four northern California counties, births 1983 through 1985. Pediatrics, 92, 854–8.Google ScholarPubMed
Guralnick, M. J. (1998). Effectiveness of early intervention for vulnerable children: a developmental perspective. American Journal of Mental Retardation, 102, 319–45.2.0.CO;2>CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hack, M., Flannery, D. J., Schluchter, M., et al. (2002). Outcomes in young adulthood for very-low-birth-weight infants. New England Journal of Medicine, 346, 149–57.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hall, E. D. (1992). The neuroprotective pharmacology of methylprednisolone. Journal of Neurosurgery, 76, 13–22.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Halliday, H. L. (2004). Use of steroids in the perinatal period. Paediatric Respiratory Reviews, 5 (Suppl. A), S321–7.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hansen-Pupp, I., Harling, S., Berg, A. C., et al. (2005). Circulating interferon-gamma and white matter brain damage in preterm infants. Pediatric Research, 58, 946–52.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Huang, W. L., Beazley, L. D., Quinlivan, J. A., et al. (1999). Effect of corticosteroids on brain growth in fetal sheep. Obstetrics and Gynecology, 94, 213–18.Google ScholarPubMed
Hudgins, R. J., Boydston, W. R., Hudgins, P. A., et al. (1994). Treatment of intraventricular hemorrhage in the premature infant with urokinase. A preliminary study. Pediatric Neurosurgery, 20, 190–7.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hur, J. J. (1995). Review of research on therapeutic interventions for children with cerebral palsy. Acta Neurologica Scandinavica, 91, 423–32.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Inder, T. E., Huppi, P. S., Warfield, S., et al. (1999). Periventricular white matter injury in the premature infant is followed by reduced cerebral cortical gray matter volume at term. Annals of Neurology, 46, 755–60.3.0.CO;2-0>CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Inder, T. E., Warfield, S. K., Wang, H., et al. (2005). Abnormal cerebral structure is present at term in premature infants. Pediatrics, 115, 286–94.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Iniguez, M. A., Lecea, L., Guadano-Ferraz, A., et al. (1996). Cell-specific effects of thyroid hormone on RC3/neurogranin expression in rat brain. Endocrinology, 137, 1032–41.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Jobe, A. H., Mitchell, B. R., & Gunkel, J. H. (1993). Beneficial effects of the combined use of prenatal corticosteroids and postnatal surfactant on preterm infants. American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology, 168, 508–13.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kinney, H. C. & Back, S. A. (1998). Human oligodendroglial development: relationship to periventricular leukomalacia. Seminars in Pediatric Neurology, 5, 180–9.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kissack, C. M., Garr, R., Wardle, S. P., et al. (2004). Cerebral fractional oxygen extraction in very low birth weight infants is high when there is low left ventricular output and hypocarbia but is unaffected by hypotension. Pediatric Research, 55, 400–5.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kreider, M. L., Tate, C. A., Cousins, M. M., et al. (2006). Lasting effects of developmental dexamethasone treatment on neural cell number and size, synaptic activity, and cell signalling: critical periods of vulnerability, dose-effect relationships, regional targets, and sex selectivity. Neuropsychopharmacology, 31, 12–35.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lacy, J. B. (1995). Developmental care for very low-birth-weight preterm infants. Journal of the American Medical Association, 273, 1576.Google Scholar
LaFranchi, S. (1999). Thyroid function in the preterm infant. Thyroid, 9, 71–8.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gamma, E. F., Wassenaer, A. G., Golombek, S. G., et al. (2006). Neonatal thyroxine supplementation for transient hypothyroxinemia of prematurity: beneficial or detrimental?Treatments in Endocrinology, 5, 335–46.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Landy, H. J. & Keith, L. G. (1998). The vanishing twin: a review. Human Reproduction Update, 4, 177–83.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lavado-Autric, R., Auso, E., Garcia-Velasco, J. V., et al. (2003). Early maternal hypothyroxinemia alters histogenesis and cerebral cortex cytoarchitecture of the progeny. Journal of Clinical Investigation, 111, 1073–82.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Leech, R. W. & Kohnen, P. (1974). Subependymal and intraventricular hemorrhage in the newborn. Annals of Pathology, 77, 465–75.Google ScholarPubMed
Levene, M. I. & Vries, L. (1995). Neonatal intracranial haemorrhage. In Fetal and Neonatal Neurology and Neurosurgery, eds. Levene, M. I., Lilford, R. J., Bennet, M. J., et al. Edinburgh: Churchill Livingstone.Google Scholar
Leviton, A., Paneth, N., Reuss, M. L., et al. (1999). Hypothyroxinemia of prematurity and the risk of cerebral white matter damage. Journal of Pediatrics, 134, 706–11.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lucas, A., Morley, R., & Cole, T. J. (1992). Breast milk and subsequent intelligence quotient in children born preterm. Lancet, 339, 261–4.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lucas, A., Morley, R., & Fewtrell, M. S. (1996). Low triiodothyronine concentration in preterm infants and subsequent intelligence quotient (IQ) at 8 year follow up. British Medicine Journal, 312, 1132–3, discussion 3–4.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Mann, N. P., Haddow, R., Stokes, L., et al. (1986). Effect of night and day on preterm infants in a newborn nursery: randomised trial. British Medical Journal, 293, 1265–7.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Marlow, N., Wolke, D., Bracewell, M. A., et al. (2005). Neurologic and developmental disability at six years of age after extremely preterm birth. New England Journal of Medicine, 352, 9–19.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Martin, S. L., Ramey, C. T., & Ramey, S. (1990). The prevention of intellectual impairment in children of impoverished families: findings of a randomized trial of educational day care. American Journal of Public Health, 80, 844–7.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
McCarton, C. M., Brooks-Gunn, J., Wallace, I. F., et al. (1997). Results at age 8 years of early intervention for low-birth-weight premature infants. The Infant Health and Development Program. JAMA: The Journal of American Medical Association, 277, 126–32.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
McCormick, M. C., Brooks-Gunn, J., Shapiro, S., et al. (1991). Health care use among young children in day care. Results in a randomized trial of early intervention. JAMA: The Journal of American Medical Association, 265, 2212–17.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
McCormick, M. C., Workman-Daniels, K., & Brooks-Gunn, J. (1996). The behavioral and emotional well-being of school-age children with different birth weights. Pediatrics, 97, 18–25.Google ScholarPubMed
Meijer, W. J., Verloove-Vanhorick, S. P., Brand, R., et al. (1992). Transient hypothyroxinaemia associated with developmental delay in very preterm infants. Archives of Disease in Childhood, 67, 944–7.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ment, L. R., Stewart, W. B., Ardito, T. A., et al. (1992). Indomethacin promotes germinal matrix microvessel maturation in the newborn beagle pup. Stroke, 23, 1132–7.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ment, L. R., Oh, W., Ehrenkranz, R. A., et al. (1994a). Low-dose indomethacin and prevention of intraventricular hemorrhage: a multicenter randomized trial. Pediatrics, 93, 543–50.Google ScholarPubMed
Ment, L. R., Oh, W., Ehrenkranz, R. A., et al. (1994b). Low-dose indomethacin therapy and extension of intraventricular hemorrhage: a multicenter randomized trial. Journal of Pediatrics, 124, 951–5.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ment, L. R., Oh, W., Ehrenkranz, R. A., et al. (1995). Antenatal steroids, delivery mode, and intraventricular hemorrhage in preterm infants. American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology, 172, 795–800.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ment, L. R., Oh, W., Philip, A. G. S., et al. (1999). Risk factors for early intraventricular hemorrhage in low birth weight infants. Journal of Pediatrics, 121, 776–83.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Merenstein, G. B. (1994). Individualized developmental care. An emerging new standard for neonatal intensive care units?Journal of the American Medical Association, 272, 890–1.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Merrell, C., Tymms, P., & Jones, P. (2007). Changes in children's cognitive development at the start of school in England 2000–2006. Available at: www.cemcentre.org/documents/pips/Baseline%20Assessment%202001%20to%202006%20%20v03.pdf (accessed 31 December 2007).
Modi, N., Lewis, H., Al-Naqeeb, N., et al. (2001). The effects of repeated antenatal glucocorticoid therapy on the developing brain. Pediatric Research, 50, 581–5.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Morgan, M. E. I., Benson, J. W. T., & Cooke, R. W. I. (1981). Ethamsylate reduces the incidence of periventricular haemorrhage in very low birthweight babies. Lancet, ii, 830–1.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Morreale de Escobar, G., Obregon, M. J., & Escobar del Rey, F. (2000). Is neuropsychological development related to maternal hypothyroidism or to maternal hypothyroxinemia?Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism, 85, 3975–87.Google ScholarPubMed
Morreale de Escobar, G., Obregon, M. J. & Escobar del Rey, F. (2004). Role of thyroid hormone during early brain development. European Journal of Endocrinology, 151 (Suppl. 3), U25–37.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Murphy, B. P., Inder, T. E., Huppi, P. S., et al. (2001). Impaired cerebral cortical gray matter growth after treatment with dexamethasone for neonatal chronic lung disease. Pediatrics, 107, 217–221.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ng, S. M. (2008). Hypothyroxinaemia of prematurity: cause, diagnosis and management. Expert Review of Endocrinology and Metabolism, 3, 453–62.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Nicholson, J. L. & Altman, J. (1972). The effects of early hypo- and hyperthyroidism on the development of the rat cerebellar cortex. II. Synaptogenesis in the molecular layer. Brain Research, 44, 25–36.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Nosarti, C., Giouroukou, E., Micali, N., et al. (2007). Impaired executive functioning in young adults born very preterm. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society, 13, 571–81.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
,Nuffield Council on Bioethics. (2006). Critical Care Decisions in Fetal and Neonatal Medicine: Ethical Issues. London: Nuffield Council on Bioethics.Google Scholar
Obregon, M. J., Calvo, R. M., Del Rey, F. E., et al. (2007). Ontogenesis of thyroid function and interactions with maternal function. Endocrine Development, 10, 86–98.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ohlsson, A. (1995). Developmental care for very low-birth-weight preterm infants. Journal of the American Medical Association, 273, 1575.Google Scholar
Olsén, P., Pääkkö, E., Vainionpää, L., et al. (1997). Magnetic resonance imaging of periventricular leukomalacia and its clinical correlation in children. Annals of Neurology, 41, 754–61.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Osborn, D. & Hunt, R. (2007). Prophylactic postnatal thyroid hormones for prevention of morbidity and mortality in preterm infants. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, 1, CD005948.Google Scholar
Pape, K. & Wigglesworth, J. S. (1979). Haemorrhage, ischaemia and the perinatal brain. In Clinics in Developmental Medicine, 69/70. London, William Heinemann Medical Books.Google Scholar
Papile, L. A., Burstein, J., Burstein, R., et al. (1978). Incidence and evolution of subependymal and intraventricular haemorrhage: a study of infants with birth weights less than 1500 gm. Journal of Pediatrics, 92, 529–34.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pappius, H. M. & Wolfe, L. S. (1983). Functional disturbances in brain following injury: search for underlying mechanisms. Neurochemical Research, 8, 63–72.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Patterson, P. H. & Nawa, H. (1993). Neuronal differentiation factors/cytokines and synaptic plasticity. Cell (Neuron), 71(10 Suppl.), 123–37.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Paul, D. A., Leef, K. H., Stefano, J. L., et al. (1998). Low serum thyroxine on initial newborn screening is associated with intraventricular hemorrhage and death in very low birth weight infants. Pediatrics, 101, 903–7.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Petterson, B., Nelson, K. B., Watson, L., et al. (1993). Twins, triplets, and cerebral palsy in births in Western Australia in the 1980s. British Medical Journal, 307, 1239–43.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Pharoah, P. O. & Cooke, T. (1996). Cerebral palsy and multiple births. Archives of Disease in Childhood: Fetal and Neonatal Edition, 75, F174–7.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Pharoah, P. O. & Cooke, R. W. (1997). A hypothesis for the aetiology of spastic cerebral palsy – the vanishing twin. Developmental Medicine and Child Neurology, 39, 292–6.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Pierrat, V., Duquennoy, C., Haastert, I. C., et al. (2001). Ultrasound diagnosis and neurodevelopmental outcome of localised and extensive cystic periventricular leukomalacia. Archives of Disease in Childhood, 84, F151–6.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Piper, M. C., Kunos, V. I., Willis, D. M., et al. (1986). Early physical therapy effects on the high-risk infant: a randomized controlled trial. Pediatrics, 78, 216–24.Google ScholarPubMed
Pryds, O. (1994). Low neonatal cerebral oxygen delivery is associated with brain injury in preterm infants. Acta Paediatrica, 83, 1233–6.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ramey, C. T. & Campbell, F. A. (1984). Preventive education for high-risk children: cognitive consequences of the Carolina Abecedarian Project. American Journal of Mental Deficiency, 88, 515–23.Google ScholarPubMed
Ramey, C. T., Bryant, D. M., Wasik, B. H., et al. (1992). Infant health and development program for low birth weight, premature infants: program elements, family participation, and child intelligence. Pediatrics, 89, 454–65.Google ScholarPubMed
Rauh, V. A., Achenbach, T. M., Nurcombe, B., et al. (1988). Minimizing adverse effects of low birthweight: four-year results of an early intervention program. Child Development, 59, 544–53.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rennie, J. M. (1997). Neonatal Cerebral Ultrasound. Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Reuss, M. L., Paneth, N., Pinto-Martin, J. A., et al. (1996). The relation of transient hypothyroxinemia in preterm infants to neurologic development at two years of age. New England Journal of Medicine, 334, 821–7.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rijken, M., Gerlinde, M., Stoelhorst, S., et al. (2003). Mortality and neurologic, mental and psychomotor development at 2 years in infants born less than 27 weeks' gestation: the Leiden follow-up project on prematurity. Pediatrics, 112, 351–8.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ringelberg, J. & Bor, M. (1993). Outcome of transient periventricular echodensities in preterm infants. Neuropediatrics, 24, 269–73.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Roberts, D. & Dalziel, S. (2007). Antenatal corticosteroids for accelerating fetal lung maturation for women at risk of preterm birth. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, 3, CD004454.Google Scholar
Romero, R., Ghidini, A., Mazor, M., et al. (1991). Microbial invasion of the amniotic cavity in premature rupture of membranes. Clinical Obstetrics and Gynecology, 34, 769–78.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ross, G., Boatright, S., Auld, P. A. M., et al. (1996). Specific cognitive abilities in 2-year-old children with subependymal and mild intraventricular haemorrhage. Brain and Cognition, 32, 1–13.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rothberg, A. D., Goodman, M., Jacklin, L. A., et al. (1991). Six-year follow-up of early physiotherapy intervention in very low birthweight infants. Pediatrics, 88, 547–52.Google Scholar
Rovet, J. F. & Hepworth, S. (2001). Attention problems in adolescents with congenital hypothyroidism: a multicomponential analysis. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society, 7, 734–44.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Russell, G. A. B. & Cooke, R. W. I. (1995). Randomised controlled trial of allopurinol prophylaxis in very preterm infants. Archives of Diseases in Childhood, 73, F27–31.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Saigal, S. & Streiner, D. (1995). Developmental care for very low-birth-weight preterm infants. JAMA: The Journal of American Medical Association, 273, 157–67.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Salerno, M., Militerni, R., Di Maio, S., et al. (1999). Intellectual outcome at 12 years of age in congenital hypothyroidism. European Journal of Endocrinology, 141, 105–10.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sepkowitz, S. (1995). Developmental care for very low-birthweight preterm infants. Journal of the American Medical Association, 273, 1577.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Shankararn, S., Papile, L. A., Wright, L. L., et al. (1997). The effect of antenatal phenobarbital therapy on neonatal intracranial hemorrhage in preterm infants. New England Journal of Medicine, 337, 466–71.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Shimogaki, K., Koterazawa, K., Nabetani, M., et al. (1998). A study on the clinical features of cerebral palsy in twins. No To Hattatsu, 30, 24–8.Google ScholarPubMed
Shinwell, E. S., Lerner-Geva, L., & Lusky, A. (2007). Reichman B in collaboration with the Israel Neonatal Network Less postnatal steroids, more bronchopulmonary dysplasia: a population-based study in very low birthweight infants. Archives of Disease in Childhood Fetal and Neonatal Edition, 92, F30–3.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Shonkoff, J. P. & Hauser-Cram, P. (1987). Early intervention for disabled infants and their families: a quantitative analysis. Pediatrics, 80, 650–8.Google ScholarPubMed
Simmer, K., Patole, S. K., & Rao, S. C. (2008). Longchain polyunsaturated fatty acid supplementation in infants born at term. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, Jan 23; (1):CD000376.Google Scholar
Sinha, S. K., Davies, J. M., Sims, D. G., et al. (1985). Relation between periventricular haemorrhage and ischaemic brain lesions diagnosed by ultrasound in very preterm infants. Lancet, ii, 1154–5.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sizonenko, S. V., Borradori-Tolsa, C., Vauthay, D. M., et al. (2006). Impact of intrauterine growth restriction and glucocorticoids on brain development: Insights using advanced magnetic resonance imaging. Molecular and Cellular Endocrinology, 254–255, 163–71.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sizun, J. & Westrup, B. (2004). Early developmental care for preterm neonates: a call for more research. Archives of Disease in Childhood Fetal and Neonatal Edition, 89, 384–8.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Song, S., Daneman, D., & Rovet, J. (2001). The influence of etiology and treatment factors on intellectual outcome in congenital hypothyroidism. Journal of Developmental and Behavioral Pediatrics, 22, 376–84.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Spinillo, A., Capuzzo, E., Stronati, M., et al. (1995). Effect of preterm premature rupture of membranes on neurodevelopmental outcome: follow up at two years of age. British Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology, 102, 882–7.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Spinillo, A., Viazzo, E., Colleoni, R., et al. (2004). Two-year infant neurodevelopmental outcome after single or multiple antenatal courses of corticosteroids to prevent complications of prematurity. American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology, 191, 217–24.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Symington, A. & Pinelli, J. (2006). Developmental care for promoting development and preventing morbidity in preterm infants. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, 2, CD001814.Google Scholar
Teitel, D. F. (1998). Physiologic development of the cardiovascular system in the fetus. In Fetal and Neonatal Physiology, eds. Polin, R. A. & Fox, W. W.. Philadelphia, PA: W. B. Saunders Co.Google Scholar
Trounce, J. Q., Rutter, N., & Levene, M. I. (1986). Periventricular leukomalacia and intraventricular haemorrhage in the preterm neonate. Archives of Diseases in Childhood, 61, 1196–202.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Tsiantos, A., Victorin, L., Relier, J. P., et al. (1974). Intracranial hemorrhage in the prematurely born infant. Timing of clots and evaluation of clinical signs and symptoms. Journal of Pediatrics, 85, 854–9.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Turnbull, J. D. (1993). Early intervention for children with or at risk of cerebral palsy. American Journal of Diseases in Children, 147, 54–9.Google ScholarPubMed
Tyszczuk, L., Meek, J., Elwell, C., et al. (1998). Cerebral blood flow is independent of mean arterial blood pressure in preterm infants undergoing intensive care. Pediatrics, 102, 337–41.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Uauy-Dagach, R. & Mena, P. (1995). The nutritional role of omega-3 fatty acids during the perinatal period. Clinics in Perinatology, 22, 157–75.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hout, B. M., Eken, P., Linden, D., et al. (1998). Visual, cognitive, and developmental outcome at 5 1/2 years in children with perinatal haemorrhagic–ischaemic brain lesions. Developmental Medicine and Child Neurology, 40, 820–8.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wassenaer, A. G., Kok, J. H., Dekker, F. W., et al. (1997a). Thyroid function in very preterm infants: influences of gestational age and disease. Pediatric Research, 42, 604–9.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wassenaer, A. G., Kok, J. H., Vijlder, J. J., et al. (1997b). Effects of thyroxine supplementation on neurologic development in infants born at less than 30 weeks' gestation. New England Journal of Medicine, 336, 21–6.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wassenaer, A. G., Westera, J., Houtzager, B. A., et al. (2005). Ten year follow up of children born at <30 weeks' gestational age supplemented with thyroxine in the neonatal period in a randomized controlled trial. Pediatrics, 116, e613–18.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Verma, U., Tejani, N., Klein, S., et al. (1997). Obstetric antecedents of intraventricular hemorrhage and periventricular leukomalacia in the low-birth-weight neonate. American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology, 176, 275–81.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Vohr, B. R. & Allen, M. (2005). Extreme prematurity – the continuing dilemma. New England Journal of Medicine, 352, 71–2.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Vohr, B. R., Wright, L. L., Poole, K., et al. (2005). McDonald for the NICHD Neonatal Research Network Follow-up Study neurodevelopmental outcomes of extremely low birth weight infants <32 weeks' gestation between 1993 and 1998. Pediatrics, 116, 635–43.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Vohr, B. R., Poindexter, B. B., Dusick, A. M., et al. (2006). NICHD Neonatal Research Network. Beneficial effects of breast milk in the neonatal intensive care unit on the developmental outcome of extremely low birth weight infants at 18 months of age. Pediatrics, 118, e115–23.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Volpe, J. J. (1998). Neurologic outcome of prematurity. Archives of Neurology, 55, 297–300.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Volpe, J. J. (2001). Neurobiology of periventricular leukomalacia in the premature infant. Pediatric Research, 50, 553–62.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Watts, J. L. & Saigal, S. (2006). Outcome of extreme prematurity: as information increases so do the dilemmas. Archives of Disease in Childhood Fetal and Neonatal Edition, 91, F221–F5.Google Scholar
Weindling, A. M., Fok, T. F., Calvert, S., et al. (1985a). Newborn babies with periventricular cysts detected ultrasonographically are likely to develop cerebral palsy. Developmental Medicine and Child Neurology, 27, 806.Google Scholar
Weindling, A. M., Wilkinson, A. R., Cook, J., et al. (1985b). Perinatal events which precede periventricular haemorrhage and leukomalacia in the newborn. British Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology, 92, 1218–23.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Weindling, A. M., Hallam, P., Gregg, J., et al. (1996). A randomized controlled trial of early physiotherapy for high-risk infants. Acta Paediatrica, 85, 1107–11.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Weindling, A. M., Cunningham, C. C., Glenn, S. M., et al. (2007). Additional therapy for young children with spastic cerebral palsy: a randomised controlled trial. Health Technology Assessment, 11, 1–90.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Westrup, B., Kleberg, A., Eichwald, K., et al. (2000). A randomized, controlled trial to evaluate the effects of the newborn individualized developmental care and assessment program in a Swedish setting. Pediatrics, 105, 66–72.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Whitelaw, A., Rivers, R., Creighton, L., et al. (1992). Low dose intraventricular fibrinolytic therapy to prevent posthaemorrhagic hydrocephalus. Archives of Disease in Childhood, 67, F12–14.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Whitelaw, A., Saliba, E., Fellman, V., et al. (1996). Phase 1 study of intraventricular recombinant tissue plasminogen activator for treatment of posthaemorrhagic hydrocephalus. Archives of Disease in Childhood, 74, F20–6.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Whitelaw, A. & Odd, D. E. (2007). Intraventricular streptokinase after intraventricular hemorrhage in newborn infants. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, 17, CD000498.Google Scholar
Williams, A. J., O'Shea, P. J., & Williams, G. R. (2007). Complex interactions between thyroid hormone and fibroblast growth factor signalling. Current Opinion in Endocrinology, Diabetes and Obesity, 14, 410–15.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Williams, F. L., Simpson, J., Delahunty, C., et al. (2004). Developmental trends in cord and postpartum serum thyroid hormones in preterm infants. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism, 89, 5314–20.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Williams, K., Hennessy, E., & Alberman, E. (1996). Cerebral palsy: effects of twinning, birthweight, and gestational age. Archives of Disease in Childhood Fetal and Neonatal Edition, 75, F178–82.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wolke, D., Schulz, J., & Meyer, R. (2001). Entwicklungslangzeitfolgen bei ehemaligen, sehr unreifen Frühgeborenen. Bayerische Entwicklungsstudie Monatsschr Kinderheilkd, 149 (Suppl. 1), 53–61.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wood, N. S., Marlow, N., Costeloe, K., et al. (2000). Neurologic and developmental disability after extremely preterm birth. New England Journal of Medicine, 343, 378–84.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wu, Y. W. & Colford, J. M. (2000). Chorioamnionitis as a risk factor for cerebral palsy. A meta-analysis. JAMA: The Journal of American Medical Association, 284, 1417–24.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Xiao, Q. & Nikodem, V. M. (1998). Apoptosis in the developing cerebellum of the thyroid hormone deficient rat. Frontiers in Bioscience, 3, A52–A7.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Yeh, T. F., Lin, Y. J., Lin, H. C., et al. (2004). Outcomes at school age after postnatal dexamethasone therapy for lung disease of prematurity. New England Journal of Medicine, 350, 1304–13.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Yoon, B. H., Romero, R., Yang, S. H., et al. (1996). Interleukin-6 concentrations in umbilical cord plasma are elevated in neonates with white matter lesions associated with periventricular leukomalacia. American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology, 174, 1433–40.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Yoon, B. H., Chong, C. J., Romero, R., et al. (1997). Experimentally induced intrauterine infection causes fetal brain white matter lesions in rabbits. American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology, 177, 797–802.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Yoshida, K. & Matayoshi, K. (1990). A study on prognosis of surviving cotwin. Acta Geneticae Medicae et Gemellologiae (Roma), 39, 383–8.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Zeskind, P. S. & Ramey, C. T. (1978). Fetal malnutrition: an experimental study of its consequences on infant development in two caregiving environments. Child Development, 49, 1155–62.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Zeskind, P. S. & Ramey, C. T. (1981). Preventing intellectual and interactional sequelae of fetal malnutrition: a longitudinal, transactional, and synergistic approach to development. Child Development, 52, 213–18.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Accessibility standard: Unknown

Why this information is here

This section outlines the accessibility features of this content - including support for screen readers, full keyboard navigation and high-contrast display options. This may not be relevant for you.

Accessibility Information

Accessibility compliance for the PDF of this chapter is currently unknown and may be updated in the future.

Save book to Kindle

To save this book to your Kindle, first ensure no-reply@cambridge.org is added to your Approved Personal Document E-mail List under your Personal Document Settings on the Manage Your Content and Devices page of your Amazon account. Then enter the ‘name’ part of your Kindle email address below. Find out more about saving to your Kindle.

Note you can select to save to either the @free.kindle.com or @kindle.com variations. ‘@free.kindle.com’ emails are free but can only be saved to your device when it is connected to wi-fi. ‘@kindle.com’ emails can be delivered even when you are not connected to wi-fi, but note that service fees apply.

Find out more about the Kindle Personal Document Service.

Available formats
×

Save book to Dropbox

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Dropbox.

Available formats
×

Save book to Google Drive

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Google Drive.

Available formats
×