Saddam struggled to find a balance between the secular and religious aspects of political rule. In theory, Baʾathism was nonreligious and Iraq a secular state. During the 1970s, there were virtually no references to religion in the regime's public language. In fact, the regime emphasized language and symbols recalling the glories of pre-Islamic Mesopotamia. During this period, the state increasingly banned Shiʾa religious observances, which led to Shiʾa rioting in Najaf and Karbala in 1977. In his capacity as vice president, Saddam responded to this unrest by telling state officials that they should not use religious terms to have a “momentary encounter” (i.e., a temporary accommodation) with religious groups. Years later, he expressed continuing distrust of individuals who used religion as a political tool: “By God, I do not like them, I do not like those who work politics under the guise of religion. My trust in them is not good.”