In the preceding chapters on semantics, syntax, and pronunciation, the focus of discussion was on cross-linguistic differences in language structure and the consequences that those differences have for acquisition. Any study of transfer must naturally provide a detailed consideration of cross-linguistic differences in structure. However, as the discussion of discourse in Chapter 4 noted, a purely structural analysis of discourse will not suffice to account for cross-linguistic influences in conversation and writing. Nonstructural factors relevant to transfer involve not only discourse but also pronunciation, vocabulary, and grammar.

A comprehensive review of nonstructural factors in second language acquisition is beyond the scope of this book, but mention of a couple should make it clear that structural factors are not the only influence on acquisition. Motivation surely plays a major role. Even though, for example, the smaller number of structural differences between Spanish and English in comparison with Chinese and English can give Spanish speakers a considerable head start in their acquisition of English, a highly motivated Chinese speaker will probably learn more English – and learn it faster – than will a poorly motivated Spanish speaker. Class size may also have an important effect. Sixty Spanish-speaking students in an English class will not likely receive as much individual attention as will four Chinese speakers who comprise another English class, and so in aspects of second language acquisition where individual attention is extremely important (e.g., writing), a Chinese speaker may acquire a greater mastery of English.