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¹³ ibid., 214–25.

¹⁴ Jackson, Peter, ‘The dissolution of the Mongol Empire’, Central Asiatic Journal, 22 (1978), 186–244Google Scholar sees the Mamluk-Golden Horde alliance as signifying the dissolution of the Mongol Empire, not the succession dispute.

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¹⁸ Amitai-Preiss, , Mongols and Mamluks, 36Google Scholar. The full text of the letter and the accompanying narrative of the Ayn Jalut campaign have been translated into English from Maqrizi in Lewis, Bernard (ed. and tr.), Islam. From the Prophet Muhammed to the capture of Constantinople. Volume 1: Politics and war (New York: Harper & Row, 1987), 84–89, letter 84–5.Google Scholar

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²⁴ The later division within the Golden Horde between Nogai and Khan Toqtu, coupled with a steppe drought, led to an increase in the availability of Kipchaks to be sold to the Mamluks. Irwin, The Middle East, 88.

²⁵ Poliak, , ‘Le caractère colonial’, 231–248Google Scholar argued that the Egyptian Sultanate was a vassal, or colony, of the Golden Horde, and that the dominance of Egypt by Kipchaks was a function of that status. For a running refutation of his argument see Ayalon, David, ‘The Circassians in the Mamluk Kingdom’, Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society, 69 (1949), 135–147Google Scholar, reprinted in his Studies on the Mamluks of Egypt (1250–1517) (London: Variorum Reprints, 1977), Essay IV. See also Ayalon, David, ‘The Muslim city and the Mamluk military aristocracy’, Proceedings of the Israel Academy of Sciences and Humanities, 2 (1968), 311–329Google Scholar, rpt. Studies on the Mamluks of Egypt, Essay VII; Ayalon, , ‘Names, titles, “nisbas” of the Mamluks’, Israel Oriental Studies, v (1975), 193–198Google Scholar, rpt. in his The Mamluk military society. Collected studies (London: Variorum Reprints, 1979), Essay IV; Ayalon, , ‘The eunuchs in the Mamluk sultanate’, in Studies in memory of Gaston Wiet (Jerusalem, 1977), 273–274Google Scholar, rpt. The Mamluk military society, Essay in; Ayalon, ‘The auxiliary forces of the Mamluk Sultanate’, Der Islam, 65 (1988), 16, rpt. in his Islam and the abode of war. Military slaves and Islamic adversaries (London: Variorum Reprints, 1994), Essay VII.

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²⁹ Even the term ‘confederation’ implies a greater degree of unity among the Kipchak clan and tribal groupings than actually occurred, but substituting ‘supratribe’ would not help matters much.

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⁴⁷ The absence of a ‘Kipchak Khanate’ of Kipchaks motivates my reservations at using that term to describe the Juchid ulus, in preference to the anachronistic term the ‘Golden Horde’. The East Slavic sources for the Mongol period never reference a ‘polovetskoe tsarstvo’.

⁴⁸ Sinor, , History of Hungary, 68–81Google Scholar; Makkai, , ‘Transformation’, 31.Google Scholar

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⁵⁸ Thackston, Wheeler M. (ed. and tr.), The Baburnama: memoirs of Babur, prince and emperor (New York: Oxford University Press; Freer Gallery of Art and Arthur M. Sackler Gallery, the Smithsonian Institute, 1996), 44–45, 63, 168, 288, 280.Google Scholar

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Pletneva, Polovtsy, 179–88 surveys the fate of the Kipchaks after the Mongol conquest, but does not mention Kipchaks in China.

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⁶⁹ Did youths raised as Kipchaks in the Pontic and Caspian steppe need to ‘borrow’ the custom of drinking kumiss and eating horseflesh? I owe this query to Devin DeWeese.

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⁷¹ For this passage, Ayalon, David, ‘The Great Yasa of Chingiz Khan. A re-examination. The basic data in the Islamic sources on the Yasa and its contents’, Studia Islamica, 33 (1971), 97–140CrossRefGoogle Scholar, especially 105–6, reprinted in Ayalon, Outsiders in the land of Islam, Essay IVa; refutation of al-Maqrizi, Ayalon, , ‘The Great Yasa of Chingiz Khan. A re-examination. Al-Maqrizi's passage on the Yasa under the Mamluks (C₂)’, Sludia Islamica, 38 (1973), 107–127CrossRefGoogle Scholar, reprinted in Ayalon, Outsiders in the Land of Islam, Essay IVd.

⁷² Ayalon, , ‘The great Yasa of Chingiz Khan. A re-examination. Al-Maqrizi's passage on the Yasa under the Mamluks (C₂)’, 131–140Google Scholar. Even in Mongol, what ‘biography’ of Chinggis Khan could someone have read in the Middle East at this time? Surely not the ‘Secret History’! Even in the Ilkhanate Rashid al-Din was not permitted to read the Alton Debter; could Utemysh in the Sultanate have had access to a text even Rashid al-Din was denied? (On the Alton Debter as distinct from the ‘Secret History’ see Morgan, , The Mongols, 11–12.Google Scholar) The version of Chingiz's origin preserved in Ibn ad-Dawadari smacks of oral transmission: see Haarmann, Ulrich, ‘“Grosser Vater Mond” und “Schwarzer Löwenjunge”—eine mongolisch-kiptschakische Ursprungssage in arabischer Überlieferung’, in Conermann, Stephan and Kusber, Jan (ed.), Die Mongolen in Asien und Europa (Kieler Werkstücke, Reihe F: Beiträge zur osteuropäischen Geschichte, Band 4), (Frankfurt am Main: Peter Lang, 1997), 121–138.Google Scholar

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⁷⁶ The four included Qusun, who arrived in Cairo in 1330 a nd died 1349, and assumed responsibility for correspondence with the Golden Horde; he may have been more of a Juchid official on detached duty than an émigré; but did not include the amir Qipgaq, who was also fluent in Mongol but chose not to work as a translator. Little, Donald P., ‘Notes on Aitamyš, a Mongol Mamluk’, in Haarmann, U. and Bachmann, Peter (ed.), Die lslamische Welt zwischen Mittelalter und Neuzeit. Festschrift für Hans Robert Roemer zum 65. Geburtstag (Beirut: Franz Steiner, 1979), 387–401Google Scholar, reprinted in Little, , History and historiography of the Mamluks (London: Variorum Reprints, 1986), Essay VI. (Pages 399–400 strike me as inconsistent with Little's views on Mongol influence on t he Mamluks cited in t he previous note.)Google Scholar

⁷⁷ Ayalon, David, ‘The Wafidiya in the Mamluk Kingdom’, Islamic Culture (Hyderabad, 1951), 89–104Google Scholar, rpt. Studies on the Mamluks of Egypt, Essay II (this article contains another running refutation of Poliak's theory that the Mamluks were vassals of the Golden Horde); Irwin, The Middle East, 108.

⁷⁸ Ayalon, David, ‘The Great Yasa of Chingiz Khan. A re-examination. The position of the Yasa in the Mamluk Sultanate. C₁’, 117–130.Google Scholar

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